Corruption in the education sector: Literature review

Adverse effects of private supplementary tutoring: dimensions, implications and government responses

Private supplementary tutoring has long been a major phenomenon in some parts of East Asia, particularly Japan, the Republic of Korea and Taiwan. In recent decades it has grow significantly in both industrialized and less developed societies. This monograph focuses on the adverse effects of private tutoring, which includes distortion of the mainstream curricula, pressure on young pupils, exacerbation of social inequalities, and manipulation of clients by tutors - particularly in situations where mainstream teachers provide paid supplementary tutoring for their own pupils after school hours. By Mark Bray (2003)

Combating academic fraud: towards a culture of integrity

This book documents the importance and extent of academic fraud, in a context of the international flow of persons, global communication of information and ideas, and the ubiquity of corporate and other forms of fraud in contemporary society. It identifies major varieties of academic fraud such as cheating in high stakes examinations, plagiarism, credentials fraud, and misconduct in reform policies. Examples of measures to limit academic fraud are presented, including national and local government interventions, punitive measures, the activities of academic and professional organizations, and the promotion of greater academic integrity. Throughout, attention is drawn to increasing participation in academic activities, the importance of qualifications and printed credentials, the international dimensions of academic fraud, and the role of advanced technology in facilitating both fraud and efforts to combat it. By Max A. Eckstein (2003)

Corruption and the Provision of Health Care and Education Services

This paper reviews the relevant theoretical models and users’ perceptions of corruption in the public provision of social services. Reports based on public service delivery surveys are found to confirm the pervasiveness of corruption and bribery in the public provision of health and education services. Evidence that reducing corruption can result in significant gains as measured by decreases in child and infant mortality rates, percent of low-birth weight babies, and primary school dropout rates are provided. The purpose of the review is to determine whether a link between corruption and the outcome of public provision of social services can be established. However, the question of what causes such links and how to approach the problem of corruption receives less attention. Suggested policy implications appear rather conventional and devoid of contextual considerations. (2003)

Corruption in education sector development: a suggestion for anticipatory strategy

In this article the author proposes an anticipatory strategy that will help professionals to protect an education project from corruption. The strategy contains of four components: 1) diagnosis/planning process for corruption prevention, 2) list possible education areas where corruption may occur, 3) dimension analysis, and 4) example measures. Much of the discussion concentrates around the first component, which again consists of five steps. The strategy is further explained by a hypothetical example. The author states that there is no universal definition of corruption. This premise is less obvious in the suggested strategy. (2003)

Education and corruption

The paper draws on standard international definitions of "corruption" and applies them to the education sector. It defines corruption in education, explains why it is important, and describes various types of corruption and their causes. Emphasis is on the role of higher education institutions in educational corruption, but the paper is not limited to higher education. In the end the paper suggests four categories of reforms designed to minimize the risk of educational corruption. These include reforms to: 1) educational structures, 2) the processes of management and adjudication, 3) the mechanisms of prevention, and 4) the system of sanctions. Clear and simple points, but suffers from oversimplification when attempting to explain corruption and their causes. Ethnographic evidence could have strengthened the arguments. (2003)

Equity Issues in Public Examinations in Developing Countries

The study presents an analysis of inequities associated with public examinations in developing countries. A distinction is drawn between inequities in examinations and more general inequities and inequalities in educational systems. Research from close to thirty countries mainly in Africa and Asia is reviewed. By identifying the sources of inequities it hopes to pinpoint the way to improve the quality of instruction and learning in developing countries. Corruption is not the focal point, but the problems raised are close to those of corruption. Two of the main questions asked that in particular can be linked to the question of corruption are 1) how equitable it is to use examination results to assess school effectiveness and to hold schools accountable (chapter 3), and 2) if factors associated with the administration of examinations, in particular scoring practices and malpractice, give rise to inequities (chapter 4). (2003)

Ethics and corruption in education

This report presents the outcomes of an expert workshop organized by the IIEP in November 2001. The objective of the workshop was to be advised on the design, methodologies and implementation of a new IIEP research program dealing with "Ethics and corruption in education". The report consists of three chapters, an annotated bibliography of 80 documents, plus two appendices. The first chapter is a background document prepared by the IIEP for the workshop. Issues such as definitions, conceptual framework, methodologies, and approaches are discussed in this chapter. Chapter two summarizes the discussions as they took place during the workshop. Chapter three presents the outcomes of an IIEP-led survey. The exercise is focused and aims to find practical answers to complex questions. The report is essential for anyone engaged in anti-corruption work in the education sector. (2003)

Financing of Social Sectors State of the Art in the International Development Debate

The topic of this Issues Study “Financing of Social Sectors” is to review the challenges posed by the effort to scale-up and improve pro-poor social sector delivery in developing countries. It will report on and discuss research findings and present concurring as well as controversial positions on “new” policy approaches to effective delivery of social services. (2004)

Local Capture and the Political Economy of School Financing

This article by Reinikka and Svensson explains leakage of public funds in education, using panel data from a study of primary schools in Uganda. The data reveal that on average, schools received only 13% of what the central government contributed to the schools’ non-wage expenditures. The bulk of the allocated spending was either used by public officials for purposes unrelated to education, or captured for private gain (leakage). (2002)

Preventing Corruption in the Education System

This practical guide is produced by GTZ under the sector project ‘Prevention of Corruption’, and addresses those responsible for development cooperation projects aiming to promote reform in the education sector. The guide aims to provide ideas and practical support, and to indicate ways of integrating corruption-prevention components appropriately in projects of this nature. Based on the priorities of German development cooperation in the Education system, the guide is built around the identification of manifestations and possible weak points in terms of corruption related to 1) personnel, 2) the finance and procurement system in educational institutions, 3) access to educational institutions, and 4) quality and quantity of education. The guide proceeds to point out measures to prevent corruption for each of these areas. (2004)

Survey techniques to measure and explain corruption

In this World Bank Working Paper it is demonstrated that, with appropriate survey methods and interview techniques, it is possible to collect quantitative micro-level data on corruption. Public expenditure tracking surveys, service provider surveys, and enterprise surveys are highlighted with several applications. While often broader in scope, these surveys permit measurement of corruption at the level of individual agents, such as schools, health clinics, or firms. They also permit the study of mechanisms responsible for corruption, including leakage of funds and bribery, as data on corruption can be combined with other data collected in these surveys. This paper is a product of the World Bank Public Services, Development Research Group, and it is a part of a larger effort in the group to measure and explain corruption at micro level and to explore its effects on service delivery. (2003)

The Poor Speaks up. 17 Stories of Corruption

This book is the result of an initiative by the Partnership for Governance Reform in Indonesia and the World Bank. It sets out to understand from the poor themselves the ways in which corruption intersects with their lives and how it affects them. The case stories presented gives a firm picture of various kinds of transactions involved when people have to deal with the education sector and other public institutions. It is one of the few studies discussing corruption from peoples own point of view. Objective of the book is to point out “where the shoe pinches”, which in turn can give a better idea of what can be done to reduce corruption. It aims to inspire action and to start a dialogue about solutions among policy makers, change agents and the communities themselves as well as NGOs and media. (2003)

The shadow education system: private tutoring and its implications for planners

This booklet problematises the phenomenon of private tuition. It states that private tuition has become part of the education environment to such an extent that nobody really questions its existence. Private tutoring has grown to become a vast enterprise and fee-free education doesn't necessarily mean free of cost. A central argument is that private supplementary tutoring deserves much greater attention than it has so far received. Different sides of private tutoring are discussed with the aim of uncovering both positive and negative aspects. The author questions whether schooling in the public system should be free of charge since people appear both willing and able to pay a lot of money for private tutoring. However, private tutoring may have an impact on social inequalities and economic development in different societies. Corruption is not mentioned, but there is a clear connection between what is said here about private tutoring and various forms of government corruption. (2003)