Practitioners' Queries

172 queries:

Impact of international asset recovery and anti-money laundering efforts on poverty reduction (Dec 2009)

In recent years there has been a lot of international focus on anti-money laundering and asset recovery in order to mobilise domestic resources for development. However, evidence of the effectiveness of these mechanisms to alleviate poverty and increase accountability of the political elite is few and far between.

Corruption in tax administration (Dec 2009)

Revenue administration is often ranked as one of the poorest performing public sectors in terms of corruption. Tax administration is an attractive sector for corruption to take place as the opportunities and incentives to engage in illicit activity are numerous. The complexity of tax laws, the high discretionary powers of tax officials, the low cost of punishment are only a few of the factors which create opportunities for corruption in revenue administration. The effects of fiscal corruption are widespread as large amounts of a nation’s taxable revenues are unaccounted for, voluntary compliance with tax laws and regulations is reduced and the distributive function of tax collecting is itself undermined. Efforts to combat fiscal corruption have focused on value added tax (VAT) refunds, semi-autonomous revenue authorities, increasing transparency and citizen participation and employment practices. The importance of strong management, performance objectives and taxpayer participation, a

The status of information on corruption in the forestry sector (Dec 2009)

Corruption in forestry undermines not only the profitability and sustainability of the world’s forest resources, but also weakens broader governance systems in countries where it occurs. Finding ways to deal with these issues is challenging due to the limited research in this area. The secretive nature of corruption also means that robust and comprehensive data on corrupt activities in the forest sector is difficult to generate. Where it is discussed, corruption is often considered primarily as an element of forest governance. This is despite evidence that corruption in the forestry sector may have impacts beyond this individual sector and may be a key factor in the inability of countries to deal with illegal logging. Though many forest-rich countries have appropriate laws and knowledge of forest science, this does not necessarily translate into good forest management practices. Part of the explanation for this appears to be that corruption impedes enforcement and implementation of suc

Donors’ Contributions to Anti-Corruption in the Education Sector (Dec 2009)

This query was treated as an urgent query and confirms that there is no quick way to get accurate estimates of donors’ spending on anti-corruption in the education sector based on available data. In the absence of reliable figures, the answer suggests possible alternatives to collect the required data, which would involve allocating more time and resources to the research process. Given the current existing aid data reporting systems (such as the OECD Creditor Reporting System (CRS) or Aid Information Management Systems) as well as major methodological challenges involved in tracking aid spending, it is almost impossible to clearly identify donor funding for anti-corruption in general and for a specific sector in particular. As a result, there is no reliable way to provide an accurate estimate of donors’ contribution to anti-corruption in the education sector based on available data. Technically challenging, coming up with robust figures in this area would also require in-depth, t

Approaches to corruption in drug management (Dec 2009)

There is a broad consensus and much anecdotal evidence that corruption in drug management affects the price, availability and quality of drugs, undermining safe and affordable access to essential medicine in many developing countries. The complexity, heavy regulation and opacity of health systems combined with the large flows of money involved provide opportunities for fraud and corruption at all points of the pharmaceutical chain, from the registration, selection, procurement, distribution to the promotion of medicines. This is likely to have a long term impact on health and economic outcomes, especially in developing countries affected by the AIDS pandemic. A number of initiatives are currently being implemented at both national and international levels to address corruption risks in drug management. Approaches to address corruption risks in drug management include the enforcement of strong and harmonised drug regulations, the promotion of open, transparent and competitive procurem

Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) (Nov 2009)

The post-war context in BiH remains characterised by a complex institutional structure, deeply entrenched ethnic and political divisions, and a general lack of transparency and accountability. Against this background, both petty and grand forms of corruption are present in the country, affecting all sectors of society, including the judiciary, tax and custom administration, public utilities, procurement and privatisation schemes as well as all major political processes. Under such circumstances, international aid is not believed to be free of corruption. The close connections between the ruling elite and criminal networks represent a further area of great concern in the country. Although an anti-corruption legal and institutional framework has been put into place in recent years - mainly as a result of international pressure - there are neither signs of progress, nor of a firm political commitment against corruption. Such context makes the definition of an anti-corruption agenda for t

Low salaries, the culture of per diems and corruption (Nov 2009)

Low government wages in developing countries result in a decline of public sector efficiency and productivity and create incentives and opportunities for corruption and misuse of public resources. However, most studies also agree that increasing salaries without effective monitoring systems as well as enforcement of sanctions is unlikely to have an impact on corruption. Underpaid staff develops a wide range of coping strategies to top up incomes. One of the most frequent consists of concentrating on activities that benefit from donor funded per diems and allowances. In addition to great potential for abuse, such practices have a number of undesirable side effects such as distorting the incentive structure of public servants, encouraging specific forms of corruption and brain drain.

Anti-corruption training courses (Sep 2009)

This answer compiles a list of selected anti-corruption courses and programmes provided by various universities and organisations.

Corruption and the international financial system (Sep 2009)

Corrupt regimes use the international financial system in two major ways, both to divert national wealth for their own benefit and to conceal the proceeds of corruption and illicit gains. Without access to the international financial system, they wouldn’t have the means and incentives to loot state’s assets on such a scale.

Coordination mechanisms of anti-corruption institutions (Sep 2009)

The success of Anti-Corruption Commissions (ACCs) strongly relies on the effectiveness and cooperation of many other complementary institutions such as the prosecutor, the ombudsman, the auditor general and the courts whose contribution and interaction play a crucial role. Yet, experience worldwide indicates that in most countries, cross-agency coordination remains weak or inexistent. Law enforcement agencies are often not well connected and integrated, due to their wide diversity, overlapping mandates, competing agendas, various levels of independence from political interference and a general institutional lack of clarity. Channels for ensuring effective inter-agency cooperation often involve setting up a new coordinating body or unit. Country experience from Uganda, South Africa, Bulgaria, Georgia or New South Wales indicate that this coordinating agency should have sufficient authority, resources, capacity and political backing to perform its mandate and compel line ministries

Impact of law enforcement interventions on corruption (Aug 2009)

Effective law enforcement is essential to ensure the credibility of anti-corruption efforts and break the cycle of impunity. In the early days of anti-corruption work, many donor interventions have focused on law enforcement strategies, by establishing and strengthening investigative agencies, independent prosecutors, specialised anti-corruption courts and anti-corruption agencies (ACAs) charged with the task of investigating and prosecuting corruption cases.

Tracking the progress of grand corruption cases: best practices and indicators (Aug 2009)

Effective prosecution is essential to deter grand corruption which has devastating impact on countries. Grand corruption cases are often controversial, complex and high profile. Because of their politically sensitive nature, the investigation and prosecution of such cases require considerable resources and careful planning. Given the powerful position of the players involved, more incentives are present for corruption to enter into the prosecution process. At the same time, integrity of the prosecution process is also important so that prosecution of grand corruption does not become a tactical tool against political opponents. Given the large scope of the topic, this expert answer focuses on progress monitoring and indicators in the domestic context and does not deal with international processes.

Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in the Philippines (Aug 2009)

Corruption is a significant obstacle to good governance in the Philippines. A review of recent literature suggests that all levels of corruption, from petty bribery to grand corruption, patronage and state capture, exist in the Philippines at a considerable scale and scope. Significant efforts have been made to combat corruption, which include putting in place legal and institutional frameworks, as well as efforts by civil society organisations and the media. Donor agencies are also actively involved in building capacity to curb corruption in the Philippines. The success of these initiatives, however, is far from guaranteed and many observers believe that structural obstacles such as entrenched cronyism continue to undermine anti-corruption efforts.

Gender, corruption and health (Jul 2009)

Access to health care is fundamental to quality of life. It is essential to inclusive human development and it is also a fundamental human right enshrined in the UN Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The health sector is particularly exposed to corruption due to multiple information asymmetries, the complexity of health systems and the large size of public funds involved. Corruption in the sector takes many forms and ranges from undue influence on health policies, to embezzlement of funds, to the solicitation of bribes and under-the-counter payments at the point of service delivery. The consequences of expensive, ill-tailored, inaccessible or unsafe health products and services hit women particularly hard. This is because they often have higher and differentiated needs for health services, but also because they bear the brunt of poor services as primary providers of homecare and are less empowered to demand accountability and assert entitlements. Corruption in the heal

Corruption challenges at sub-national level in Indonesia (Jun 2009)

Since the fall of General Suharto’s regime, Indonesia has embarked on a comprehensive and unprecedented process of decentralisation, devolving almost overnight enormous responsibilities to regional, provincial and local governments. In spite of considerable achievements, the Indonesian decentralisation process continues to face major challenges of state capture by the local elites, a deeply entrenched patronage system and widespread petty and bureaucratic corruption. The emergence of stronger civil society and a free media constitute promising trends that, combined with further reforms aimed at promoting transparency, community participation as well as reinforcing upwards and downward accountability mechanisms, could ensure that decentralisation fully yields the intended benefits.

Gender, corruption and education (Jun 2009)

There are few governance indicators that systematically capture the gender dimension of corruption in education. However, there is a growing consensus that corruption undermines the quality and quantity of public services, and reduces the resources available for the poor and the women, ultimately exacerbating social and gender disparities. Corruption hits disadvantaged groups – including women – harder, as they rely more on the public system, have less resources to make informal payments to access education services and seek legal protection. Women are also more vulnerable to specific forms of corruption such as sexual extortion in exchange for schooling, good grades and other school privileges. There is no empirical evidence available on the long term impact of corruption on gender disparities in the education sector. However, there is a general consensus that such practices have long term consequences on women’s education outcomes, psychological and physical health as well as gend

Good practice in addressing corruption in water resource management projects (Jun 2009)

Specific characteristics of water resource management (WRM) make this sector especially vulnerable to corruption. All major forms of corruption are prevalent in the WRM sector, including grand corruption, high risk procurement, state and regulatory capture and the mismanagement of public resources. Measures to address corruption risks in WRM projects include addressing the sector’s diffuse governance system, strengthening institutional arrangements as well as monitoring and oversight mechanisms, and cleaning up procurement processes with the support of awareness raising and capacity building interventions. Transparency and participation are guiding principles for all water governance interventions, with the view to promoting citizen participation through open access to regulatory decisions, information disclosure, public hearing, and the introduction of effective complaint mechanisms and whistleblowing protection.

Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (WPL) (Jun 2009)

Whistleblower protection is growingly recognised as a key factor to promote a culture of public accountability and integrity. An increasing number of countries is adopting Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (WPL). Good practice WPL includes adopting comprehensive free standing laws that have a broad scope and coverage, provide adequate alternative channels of reporting both internally and externally, protect as far as possible the whistleblower’s confidentiality and provide for legal remedies and compensation. As WPL is still in its infancy, little is known yet on its impact and the conditions of effective implementation.

State of Research on Gender and Corruption (Jun 2009)

Corruption may affect progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment by limiting women’s capacities to claim their rights. Evidence is inconclusive on whether women are more or less prone to corruption than men. A review of recent literature indicates that a more important dimension is corruption’s disproportionate impact on women. This appears to be particularly the case in fragile state settings. Research shows that good practice to mitigate the effects of corruption on women include improved female participation in oversight processes and accountability systems.

Overview of corruption in Burma (Myanmar) (Jun 2009)

After more than four decades of military rule, political violence and systematic repression of democratic opposition, the country’s political and economic environment has continued to deteriorate in recent years. Myanmar faces major challenges of endemic corruption, consistently ranking at the bottom of TI’S Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). Little is known on the specific forms and patterns of corruption in the country, but the scale of the informal and illicit economy suggests strong links between the ruling elite and organised crime activities, such as drugs and human trafficking, and illegal logging. In the absence of sound democratic institutions and an effective system of checks and balances, the legal and institutional frameworks against corruption appear rudimentary and likely to be misused by the junta for political reasons. Money laundering is the only area where the country appears to have made some progress in recent years, resulting in its removal from the Financial Acti

The African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) (Jun 2009)

The African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) was set up by the African Union as a voluntary governance self-monitoring system within the framework of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). Originating from and ‘owned’ by African countries, it provides an opportunity for civil society participation and public dialogue on governance issues. The review process includes country self-assessments based on a questionnaire, expert review teams, and on-site visits by expert review teams who consult with government, private sector and civil society representatives. The process also involves active plenary discussions, revision and publication of country reports and action plans. In spite of early evidence of positive impact, the APRM still faces major challenges of human, financial, technical and political nature. Major weaknesses include the lack of an effective follow up mechanism to monitor the implementation of recommendations and the limited level of civil society participation i

The role of supreme audit institutions in combating corruption (May 2009)

Can you give a comprehensive overview about the role of supreme audit insittutions in anti-corruption? The answer should focus on concrete activities that SAIs can undertake, techniques to be acquired, audit focus to be changed. In addition, I would like to know how these activities might differ when looking at the different types of audit models (Westminster, Judicial, Collegiate). How can technical cooperation strengthen SAIs in their role and in activities mentioned above? And how are activities different under the different audit models?

The political economy of public procurement reform (May 2009)

As procurement reform has been traditionally seen as a technical and administrative process, there are very few studies focusing on its political economy dimension. With regard to procurement, political economy issues have been implicitly addressed as part of studies looking at public sector or governance reform more broadly. Yet, as procurement reform often meets major resistance from vested interests within society there is a growing recognition of the need to understand and address the underlying factors that may undermine political will for reform and more systematically analyse the effects of political incentives on the feasibility and sustainability of such reforms.

Overview of Corruption in Tanzania (May 2009)

Both past and current presidents of Tanzania have made strong commitments to fight corruption. Since the publication of the 1996 Warioba report assessing the state of corruption in Tanzania, the country has established a comprehensive body of regulations, laws and oversight institutions aimed at preventing, investigating and sanctioning corrupt practices. These include establishment of the Prevention of Corruption Bureau, a Good Governance Coordination Unit, and the Ethics Inspectorate Department. Although the public perceive corruption to have declined in recent years, possibly as a result of these efforts, both petty and grand forms of corruption continue to be present in political and administrative systems. Recent corruption scandals led to the resignation of the prime minister in early 2008. Enforcement remains limited, with anti-corruption institutions suffering from lack of staff, resources and coordination. Civil society remains to a large extent excluded from official policy

Developing a code of conduct for NGOs (Apr 2009)

With the growing prominence of the non profit sector, NGO accountability has become an emerging issue of concern in recent years. NGO accountability covers issues such as organisational management, project implementation, financial management, participation and information disclosure that can be addressed in a Code of Conduct. In addition to setting core values and guiding principles, NGOs (non governmental organizations) codes of conduct typically provide for establishing strong oversight boards that are independent from management, complaints procedures towards external and internal audiences, conflict of interest policies, whistle blower protection policies, etc. Many organisations face major challenges of implementing and maintaining the code. As non-binding and rather generic instruments, codes of conduct often remain ineffective since they do not include clear mechanisms for their implementation and compliance checks.

Measuring international trends in corruption (Apr 2009)

Measuring trends over time – whether at the national or international level - remains one of the most critical challenges facing corruption research. Due to cost and logistical constraints, governance indicators are often either limited in their geographic or time-period coverage, which makes it difficult to track change. Current corruption indicators gather the various stakeholders’ views of levels of corruption in a given country or assess the state of the anti-corruption legal and institutional frameworks in place. Tracking international trends would involve either repeating worldwide surveys on a regular basis using aggregated indicators or generating comparable country level data, with major resource implications to ensure global coverage.

The State of Research on Corruption in the Netherlands Antilles (Apr 2009)

Little is known about the levels and patterns of corruption in the Netherlands Antilles. Beyond anecdotal evidence of the prevalence of corruption, there is little data and research available on the islands’ state of governance and corruption. The territory has only recently been added to those countries assessed by the World Bank Institute’s World Governance Indicators. The few other studies available have mainly focused on issues related to its activities as an international financial centre. To address this knowledge gap, there is a need to measure levels of corruption and/or conduct an in-depth diagnostic of the state of governance in the Netherlands Antilles. Such research should be conducted with a view to mapping corruption risks, identifying critical issues of public governance as well as priority areas for reform.

Overview of corruption in Cambodia (Apr 2009)

After decades of civil war and political violence, corruption has pervaded almost every sectors of Cambodian public life, with a system of patronage well entrenched in society. Both petty and grand forms of corruption are widespread. Law enforcement agencies are perceived as the most corrupt and inefficient sectors, lacking the independence, resources and capacity to effectively investigate and prosecute corruption cases. Weak systems of checks and balance, ineffective accountability mechanisms and scarce opportunities for public participation further contribute to the deteriorating situation. The enactment of the long awaited anti-corruption law has been pending for years.

The implementation of Integrated Financial Management Systems (IFMIS) (Mar 2009)

Emerging information and communication technology (ICT) can play an important role in fighting corruption in public finance systems by promoting greater comprehensiveness and transparency of information across government institutions. As a result, the introduction of Integrated Financial Management Systems (IFMIS) has been promoted as a core component of public financial reforms in many developing countries. Yet, experience shows that IFMIS projects tend to stall in developing countries, as they face major institutional, political, technical and operational challenges. Case studies of more successful countries indicate that factors supporting successful implementation include clear commitment of the relevant authorities to financial reform objectives, ICT readiness, sound project design, a phased approach to implementation, project management capability, as well as adequate resources and human resource capacity allocated to the project.

Examples of anti-corruption training sessions (Mar 2009)

A number of anti-corruption training providers have developed teaching tools such as role playing, case studies, case solving or presentation of experiences, that could be used within the framework of an awareness raising session. A key lesson emerging from the experience of conducting anti-corruption training is that there are no ready-made awareness raising techniques that can be applied everywhere, irrespective of local context. Anti-corruption awareness raising activities need to be tailored to the needs, knowledge and capacities of the target audience as well as to the specific circumstances of each country.

South-south anti-corruption cooperation mechanisms (Feb 2009)

South-South cooperation (SSC) in the field of anti-corruption is an emerging trend, yet there is little information available on the nature and effectiveness of the various mechanisms in place. SSC has been initially integrated within the framework of regional and sub-regional economic communities. Similarly, in the field of anti-corruption, regional inter-governmental groupings have provided initial frameworks to promote South-South learning and collaboration opportunities. Regional anti-corruption conventions and instruments have opened promising avenues for SSC. Recent years have also seen the emergence of a number of regional networks of anti-corruption bodies and initiatives, established to promote multilateral SSC on corruption related issues. There are also examples of SSC occurring on a bilateral basis, outside of the regional mechanisms in place, when some countries or institutions that have developed a special expertise in areas relevant to anti-corruption.

Overview of Corruption In Uganda (Feb 2009)

Since the National Resistance Movement (NRM) came to power in 1986, Uganda has undertaken an ambitious set of economic and political reforms. These reforms have led to the establishment of a solid legal, administrative and institutional framework to fight corruption. In spite of initial success widely heralded by the international community, corruption remains widespread at all level of society and the country faces major implementation challenges. Recent political developments tend to demonstrate a lack of political backing for anti-corruption efforts. Combined with understaffed and underfinanced anti-corruption bodies, the state faces considerable challenges in its ability to effectively enforce the legislative framework against corruption.

Examples of anti-corruption training sessions (Feb 2009)

Participatory approaches privileging problem solving/action oriented training methods have been mainly developed within the framework of anti-corruption training and education, which constitute a core element of any sustainable anti-corruption strategy. A number of anti-corruption training providers have developed teaching tools such as role playing, case studies, case solving or presentation of own experience, that could be used within the framework of an awareness raising session. A key lesson emerging from the experience of conducting anti-corruption training is that there are no ready made awareness raising techniques that can be applied everywhere, irrespective of the local context. Anti-corruption awareness raising activities need to be tailored to the needs, knowledge and capacities of the target audience as well as to the specific circumstances of each country.

Overview of corruption and anti-corruption efforts in India (Jan 2009)

The fight against corruption has been declared a high priority by Prime Minister ManMohan Singh. However, corruption remains widespread in the country and there have been many instances of political and bureaucratic corruption, public funds embezzlement, fraudulent procurement practices, and judicial corruption. The government has put in place a well developed legal and institutional framework, with institutions including the Central Bureau of Investigation, the Office of the Comptroller and the Auditor General, and the Central Vigilance Commission. The Supreme Court, in particular, has taken a firm stance against corruption in recent years and made several important rulings. Another achievement has been the enactment of the Right to Information (RTI) Act in 2005, which grants citizens access to government information and a mechanism to control public spending. In spite of progress, however, law enforcement remains weak and reforms have a long way to go.

Political economy analysis of anti-corruption reforms (Dec 2008)

In an effort to understand factors affecting the political will for reforms, donors have started looking at the potential of using political economy analysis to analyse the underlying context of developing countries, factors and processes that promote or block governance reforms. Initiatives such as DFID’s Drivers of Change or SIDA`s Power Analysis reflect this emerging trend. In the field of governance and anti-corruption, an increasing number of studies supported by the World Bank, the Netherlands or USAID adopt a similar approach to understanding the formal and informal dimensions of economic and political processes that are likely to affect the success of anti-corruption reforms. While these studies have generated a wealth of knowledge, the challenge remains to incorporate the findings into operational work and use them to inform the development of effective anti-corruption strategies.

Fighting corruption in countries with serious narcotics problems (Dec 2008)

State capture and the criminal infiltration of the public sector is a major feature of drug producing and transit countries. Drug traffickers seriously compromise the effectiveness of anti-corruption and institution-building efforts as they permeate political and state administration institutions and build corrupt networks with state officials in order to facilitate or reduce the risks and costs of their operations. General lessons cannot easily be extracted and applied to Afghanistan, as some specific challenges associated with post-conflict countries make the situation there very unique.

The effectiveness of donor responses to corruption in deteriorating environments (Dec 2008)

Exiting a country abruptly for governance-related reasons without proper planning and consultation can have a disastrous impact on implementing agencies, beneficiaries and bilateral relations. Case studies indicate that using aid conditionality to support anti-corruption reform has also failed to induce sustained change due to lack of ownership of reforms. As a result, donors are increasingly turning to corruption risk-mitigating strategies, such as reinforcing internal controls, adjusting aid modalities to corruption risks and supporting longer term, broader anti-corruption reforms. The impact of such approaches varies greatly across countries, due to country specific and contextual factors, illustrating the need to target responses to corruption deteriorating environments strategically according to the local circumstances. Donor coordination greatly enhances the impact and credibility of responses to governance deteriorating situations.

Overview of corruption in Zambia (Nov 2008)

The late President Mwanasa is credited with having put the fight against corruption high on Zambia’s political agenda, with initiatives such as the constitution of a Task Force on Economic Plunder, the design of a corruption prevention strategy and the reinforcement of institutions such as the Auditor General and the Anti-Corruption Commission. In spite of some progress made, most indicators of corruption suggest that these efforts haven’t yielded the expected results.

Indicators of judicial efficiency in corruption cases (Oct 2008)

Increasing judicial efficiency reduces opportunities for corruption in all court proceedings, not just those dealing with corruption. Therefore, indicators of judicial efficiency generally do not distinguish between case types but rather focus on tracking the volume of cases passing through the system. A supportive legal framework and strong capacity of the judicial system in the form of adequate budgetary allocations, sufficient number of staff, adequate training of staff and good case management systems all increase efficiency. Judicial integrity and independence are of particular importance in cases of corruption and also enhance efficiency. Indicators measuring judicial integrity and corruption are thus also used to assess judicial efficiency in handling corruption cases. Within the framework of this query, efficiency is understood as the ability of a judicial system to process corruption cases in a professional and independent manner without unreasonable delays and backlogs.

Drafting a national anti-corruption strategy for Vietnam (Sep 2008)

Lessons drawn from the experience of implementing National Anti-Corruption Strategies (NACS) worldwide indicate that key features for successful anti-corruption policy making include national ownership, knowledge base design, stakeholder participation, strategic priority setting and sequencing, effective coordination, and monitoring and evaluation. Factors affecting the performances of the NACS have mainly been found to be lack of ownership, unrealistic planning, inadequate prioritisation of reforms, insufficient involvement of non state actors, lack of coordination and monitoring and other implementation shortcomings. In the specific case of Vietnam, priority areas of intervention could include strengthening institutional coherence between the various agencies involved, increasing civil society participation and oversight, mainstreaming corruption into other areas of public administration reform as well as giving a greater focus on private sector corruption.

Corruption and resource distribution in neopatrimonial systems (Aug 2008)

Resource distribution in neopatrimonial systems happens through direct transfer in the form of disbursement of cash, gifts and favours from politicians to their constituents. Political representation through elections constitutes the only formal mechanism of accountability in neopatrimonial systems since other avenues of formal accountability, such as the rule of law, are severely eroded. However, voting is not an effective accountability mechanism in the long run since neopatrimonial systems concentrate power in the hands of wealthy and / or powerful politicians and weaken political opposition and thereby limit voter choices at election time. Pressures by constituents on the leaders can act as an informal accountability mechanism, however, no empirical evidence was found that confirmed the effectiveness of these mechanisms. Neopatrimonialism also damages the long-term development of democratic accountability.

Corruption in land administration / land management in Kosovo (Aug 2008)

Ensuring the inviolability of property rights in Kosovo remains a great challenge. The competent public authorities are often accused of corruption, nepotism and failing to react to blatant violations of the existing laws. This expert answer looks at some of the important avenues of corruption in land administration / management in post-conflict Kosovo. It also examines possible institutional reforms involving land management agencies and tools such as property courts, tax authorities and cadastre. Finally, it looks at the institutions that need to be considered in a holistic approach to fighting corruption and abuses in land administration in Kosovo.

Overview of corruption in Pakistan (Jul 2008)

Corruption remains a substantial obstacle for Pakistan where it is still perceived to be widespread and systemic. Petty corruption in the form of bribery is prevalent in law enforcement, procurement and the provision of public services. The judiciary is not seen as independent and considered to be shielding corrupt political practices from prosecution. Various efforts over the past years have tried to develop institutional mechanisms to address these problems. A National Anti-Corruption Strategy, which was developed in 2002, offers a comprehensive plan for tackling corruption. The executing agency, the National Accountability Bureau (NAB), is endowed with comprehensive powers to investigate and prosecute cases. However, a lack of political will, coupled with the perceived co-option of the judiciary and the arbitrariness of many anti-corruption proceedings, are major obstacles.

Mutual legal assistance treaties and money laundering (Jul 2008)

Individual countries cannot fight against corruption alone as corruption and money laundering cases are often and increasingly transnational. This is particularly true for many developing countries that lack the expertise, resources, capacity and legal framework to effectively tackle money laundering offences. Mutual legal assistance treaties (MLATs) could potentially address some of these challenges provided the legal, practical and political obstacles that generally hamper the effective provision of legal assistance can be overcome. In practice, factors such as procedural delays, lack of training on effective means to request cooperation and difficulties relating to differences between legal systems may affect the effectiveness of formal legal assistance.

The impact of strengthening citizen demand for anti-corruption reform (Jul 2008)

There is a growing interest in interventions aimed at mobilising the public against corruption and strengthening the demand for curbing corruption and promoting better forms of governance. Demand-side approaches cover a wide range of interventions aimed at promoting civic engagement in governance processes. Although the impact of such interventions on reducing corruption is difficult to establish due to methodological challenges, a set of case studies support the claim that they can (but do not automatically) contribute to reducing corruption and improving governance. Most studies and evaluations suggest that such interventions have an indirect impact on factors likely to affect corruption such as increased participation, access to information or level of awareness, rather than an immediate impact on levels of corruption. Additional benefits include greater responsiveness of public policies, improved quality and quantity of public services and better outcomes of development projects.

Organised crime and corruption (May 2008)

Instrumental violence, corruption and money laundering are regarded as key defining characteristics of organised crime. Although there is little empirical research specifically focussing on the link between organised crime and corruption, abundant circumstantial evidence indicates frequent collusion between organised criminals and corrupt officials at all levels of government. Through corruption, criminals can obtain protection from public officials, influence political decisions and infiltrate state structures and legitimate businesses. Case studies of Nigeria, Mozambique and South Africa illustrate the specific characteristics of organised criminal groups in Africa and how corruption is used as part of their modus operandi to facilitate their criminal activities, avoid punishment and infiltrate public institutions.

Hawala remittance system and money laundering (May 2008)

Hawala remittance systems - also referred to by the Financial Action Task Force as alternative remittance systems – are informal banking arrangements that allow the transfer of funds both domestically and internationally without using formal financial institutions. As a cheap, fast, and reliable money transfer system, they are primarily used by migrant workers overseas sending remittance to support their families in their home countries. Although it is difficult to quantify accurately the volume of funds transferred every year to the developing world through such channels, remittances are very important sources of income for many impoverished households and may play an important role in promoting growth and development. However, in the aftermath of 9/11, there has been growing concern on their potential role in money laundering.

Supporting Zambian judicial capacity to handle corruption cases (May 2008)

Effective prosecution of corruption cases cannot be achieved without an effective and competent judicial system that functions efficiently, independently and impartially. Most initiatives supporting judicial capacity to tackle corruption seek to strengthen judicial independence and accountability through transparent appointment, promotion and disciplinary procedures and the introduction of higher ethical and professional standards. In addition, as corruption cases are more likely to be effectively handled by a well-functioning judiciary with adequate resources and capacity, reforms programs also address inefficiencies through increased resources and capacity, well-trained judges and more efficient ways of handling cases and managing caseloads. Judicial reform must be grounded in a solid empirical basis, tailored to the specific circumstances of the country and locally owned. A holistic approach should be prioritised.

Corruption and Public Sector Reform Monitoring Systems (Apr 2008)

While most national anti-corruption strategies (NACS) recognise that anti-corruption efforts and public sector reforms are intrinsically related, the link between NACS and main government policies is often missing at the operational level. Most NACS provide for review mechanisms that primarily focus on monitoring anti-corruption measures as illustrated by the cases of Georgia, Zambia, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nicaragua or Tanzania. The implementation and impact of such mechanisms has been limited so far, due to lack of capacity, political will, resources and coordination capacity between the various public agencies involved. Civil society has also been insufficiently involved in the monitoring of NACS.

Donor responses to corruption in deteriorating governance environments (Apr 2008)

There have been some examples of donors disengaging, suspending or reducing aid to a country on account of corruption, human rights abuses or undemocratic regimes. These cases have been extensively covered by the media, such as in Zimbabwe, Chad, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi. As yet, no joint response has been explicitly formulated by the donor community on whether/how to engage with countries where governance deteriorates. In practice, while there is a growing consensus on the need to maintain sustained engagement in fragile states, donors are faced with the challenge of identifying appropriate forms of engagement. Engagement through civil society organisations or UN agencies remains an option with the view to bypassing corrupted government structures.

Corruption in fast-growing markets: lessons from Russia and Vietnam (Apr 2008)

In this query we look at corruption in fast growing markets, using Russia and Vietnam as case studies. A survey of development literature reveals that in these two countries rapid economic growth has put substantial strain on institutional structures that were designed for a centrally planned command economy. The transition process has been characterised by the simultaneous restructuring of the state and building of the market economy which has opened up new avenues of corruption. Both countries have seen increases in administrative, political, judicial and private sector corruption in recent years.

Overview of corruption in Rwanda (Apr 2008)

Various governance indicators indicate that Rwanda performs relatively well in terms of control of corruption, compared to many African countries. The country has also achieved significant progress over the last years in terms of government effectiveness and transparency of the regulatory framework. In spite of these efforts, corruption remains prevalent in the country and there have been instances of tax and public funds embezzlement, fraudulent procurement practices, judicial corruption as well as high ranking officials involved in corrupt practices. Sectors most affected by corruption include the judiciary, public finance management, public administration and public procurements. The Government is reported to conduct a firm fight against corruption and has put a number of measures and institutions in place such as the National Tender Board, the Office of the Auditor General and the Ombudsman’s Office.

Comparative assessment of anti-corruption conventions' review mechanisms (Apr 2008)

A range of different monitoring processes are currently in operation in connection with several anti-corruption conventions. They all involve to some degree a combination of monitoring methods including self-assessments, expert reviews, peer reviews, country visits and the publication of a report with recommendations for improvement. They also provide avenues for promoting dialogue and discussions with countries under review. The comparative assessment of the review mechanisms established by the OAS, the OECD, GRECO, UNODC or NEPAD indicate that an effective monitoring system requires a serious commitment by governments, adequate resources and expertise, an independent secretariat, and should provide for civil society participation and access to information and documents. Follow-up mechanisms to assess progress made on the review recommendations such as for the OECD and GRECO mechanisms are essential to promote actual changes.

UNCAC and the participation of NGOs in the fight against corruption (Mar 2008)

Civil society (including NGOs) has a key role to play in fighting corruption, from monitoring public services, denouncing bribery and raising awareness, to contributing to the implementation of international anti-corruption instruments such as the UNCAC. For donors, some of the challenges involved in working with NGOs include identifying partners that share common goals and values, managing coalitions of actors with different interests and agendas, and striking a balance between the political interests of state and non-state actors. There are several examples of initiatives aimed at empowering NGOs to promote the implementation of the UNCAC that demonstrate that NGOs can be very instrumental in advocating for anti-corruption reforms. The UNCAC itself contains mandatory provisions that promote CSO participation in the fight against corruption, but little information is available on how state parties have implemented the related Article 13. With provisions on training, research, informat

Corruption and the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) (Mar 2008)

The fight against corruption figures high on the agenda of the European Neighbourhood Policy, with all ENP reference documents including the fight against fraud, corruption and organised crime as part of the reforms partner countries must commit to in their ENP action plans. The two major weaknesses of the ENP as a policy instrument against corruption include the lack of corruption monitoring and benchmarking and insufficient involvement of civil society in the process. No specific anti-corruption mechanism has been put into place to ensure that EC assistance under the ENPI is protected from corruption. As the Commission relies on the regular EU anti-corruption policies and procedures in this matter, ENP funds face similar challenges of transparency and accountability to other EU funds. No public documentation of corruption cases within ENP funds has been unearthed within the time frame of this query.

African experience of asset declarations (Mar 2008)

An effective income and asset declaration regime can help prevent abuse of power, reduce corruption and increase public accountability, public trust in institutions and government legitimacy. Research findings indicate that countries where wealth disclosure is combined with content verification and public access to declarations are significantly associated with lower perceived levels of corruption. In Africa, the scope, coverage and level of enforcement of asset declaration laws vary from country to country, according to the local context, political situation and capacity to manage such schemes. However, any credible asset disclosure programme must clearly establish who should declare what to whom and how, provide for content verification and sanctions of intentional failure to declare as well as ensure public access to declarations. Adequate resources and capacity should be allocated to the asset declaration management process.

Overview of corruption and government's efforts against corruption in Mali (Feb 2008)

In spite of firm political will against corruption demonstrated by a series of public anti-corruption reforms and initiatives, Mali continues to perform poorly in terms of control of corruption as shown by its Corruption Perceptions Index and World Bank Governance indicators’ scores. Although there are few recent national surveys and studies on Mali specifically focusing on corruption, most sources identify public procurement and the judiciary as the sectors most vulnerable to corruption. Since 2000, the government has undertaken a number of reforms to address corruption in the country. They have mainly focused on establishing a comprehensive institutional set-up to combat corruption, including anti-corruption laws, treaties and agencies and strengthening administrative control mechanisms. Reforms have culminated in the creation of the Office of the Auditor General in 2003.

Assessing impact of anti-corruption measures in Burkina Faso (Feb 2008)

In spite of increased empirical research on corruption, assessing corruption trends and impact of anti-corruption measures on actual levels of corruption continues to face major methodological, political and operational challenges. While comparative composite indexes such as the CPI or the World Bank Governance Indicators play an important role in raising awareness on corruption related issues, they are of very limited value to track change over time and measure the impact of anti-corruption efforts. Looking at the respective advantages and limitations of alternative existing corruption measurement tools such as national surveys, qualitative or quantitative assessments show that there is no single valid and reliable indicator of progress in the fight against corruption. The alternative approach would be to use a range of indicators, data sources and methodologies - both qualitative and quantitative- to track progress and corruption trends over time.

Civil Society Anti-Corruption Initiatives in MENA Countries (Nov 2007)

Civil society faces specific challenges in the Arab world, including political and legal restrictions imposed on civil society organisations (CSOs) by mostly non-democratic governments and the fragmentation and general lack of cross-sector coordination of civil society efforts. In spite of these various constraints, there is considerable potential for impact by civil society on anti-corruption work in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The growing number of anti-corruption initiatives and organisations from Algeria to Yemen demonstrate increased awareness of corruption issues and demand for change.

Corruption and the renegotiation of mining contracts (Nov 2007)

Although rarely documented and by nature hard to detect, corruption in the allocation/renegotiation of mining concessions is believed to be widespread. The secretive nature of such deals, the lack of transparency and public scrutiny as well as amount of capital involved provide opportunities for abuse and corruption. Civil society has been calling for greater transparency in the allocation and implementation of mining contracts and a number of tools and approaches have been developed in recent years to address the lack of transparency in the allocation of mining contracts. A few principles emerge from past experiences, including the need to ensure a truly competitive award of concessions, reduce opportunities for opportunistic renegotiations, promote transparency and full disclosure of contract information, create opportunities for participation as well as involve civil society in the negotiation and implementation process.

Targeted Anti-Corruption Interventions in Africa (Nov 2007)

TThis Expert Answer provides a selection of targeted anti-corruption interventions that have been implemented by a broad range of actors at sectoral level in Africa as well as country level activities which have involved engaging with international anti-corruption processes such as the ratification and implementation of the UN/AU conventions. Examples provided cover interventions aiming at measuring corruption at national or sectoral levels, enhancing public sector ethics, strengthening public finance management systems as well as promoting public participation and monitoring. They have targeted a wide range of actors, sectors and institutions, including political parties, public institutions, the private sector, the judiciary, and service delivery. This list of interventions presented is illustrative of the types of initiatives that have been developed and implemented across Africa.

Parliamentary Approaches to Corruption (Nov 2007)

Parliamentary approaches to corruption have mainly focused on establishing appropriate anti-corruption legal frameworks at country level and strengthening the parliamentary oversight functions in sensitive areas such as monitoring budget processes. Parliaments also have the duty and responsibility of adhering to the highest integrity standards. Using regional and global parliamentarian networks has proved a very promising capacity building strategy.

Designing an Embassy Based Anti-Corruption Plan (Oct 2007)

Bosnia-Herzegovina faces serious corruption challenges with weak and inefficient integrity structures to combat it. Research findings indicate that corruption is especially prevalent at the local level, where the majority of contacts between citizens and public administration take place, while political corruption undermines the political will to fight against corruption. At country level, embassies can first work against corruption by establishing clear in house ethical standards and prevention mechanisms through internal and external accountability mechanisms like independent audits, investigations and reporting controls. They can also take appropriate measures to safeguard development projects, programmes and loans from corruption. In this regards, anti-corruption plans primarily focus on improving the project design process, promoting greater disclosure and increased participation as well as strengthening the monitoring and supervision of development projects. An effective anti-cor

Overview of Corruption in MENA Countries (Oct 2007)

Although the MENA region is characterised by the paucity of empirical data on corruption, experts agree that corruption is widespread and deeply rooted in the political infrastructure of the state (mainly monarchies or authoritarian regimes), the institutional infrastructure of the public sector (very large, overstaffed and with low wages) and limited opportunities for participation. As a result, most countries in the region perform especially poorly on indicators of transparency, voice and accountability. Donor efforts in the region have mainly focussed on enhancing democratic processes and public participation through broader governance initiatives. As the only applicable international anti-corruption instrument in the region, the UNCAC could potentially provide a very valuable complementary entry point for anti-corruption reform in the region.

Corruption and Decentralisation in Afghanistan (Sep 2007)

Decentralisation in Afghanistan faces considerable challenges of efficiency, responsiveness and accountability given the current legal and institutional context and overall lack of resources and capacity. Findings from theoretical and empirical research do not conclusively establish that decentralisation systematically leads to less corruption. Decentralisation brings government closer to the people and provides increased participation opportunities, making the public sector more responsive and accountable to the citizens. However, decentralisation also generates a new set of corruption risks such as risks of state capture by the local elite and the lack of fiscal discipline and financial management due to weak capacity and insufficient resources at the local level. Anti-corruption tools that may address these risks include strengthening the legal framework against corruption while reinforcing voice and participation mechanisms.

Designing a Taxpayer Baseline Survey in Uganda (Sep 2007)

Surveys indicate that corruption is on the rise in the Uganda Revenue Authority (URA), with incidences of political interference, patronage and corruption at managerial level. Corruption can occur at all stages of the tax administration processes, in the identification of tax liabilities, the registration or removal of taxpayers, the assessment of collection of tax dues, the monitoring of incoming payments as well as in the investigations and prosecutions by the tax authorities for suspected tax offences, with an impact on the country revenue trends. Although not directly assessing the prevalence of corruption within the tax administration, a variety of indicators can suggest that corruption is taking place as well as help identify vulnerability areas. These include the complexity of tax laws and procedures, the large numbers of exemptions or special rules, the monopoly and discretionary power of tax officials and the frequency of contacts between tax payers and tax officials. In

Tackling Judicial Corruption in Afghanistan (Aug 2007)

In Afghanistan, problems of training, resources, ineffective oversight, judicial corruption and political interference currently undermine the credibility and independence of the judiciary, jeopardising the restoration of the rule of law. Some specific contextual issues further challenge effective delivery of justice services in the country, including the general state of insecurity, the lack of government control outside Kabul, the existence of a parallel informal justice system and the booming of the narcotics trade. However, a series of ongoing training initiatives and reforms such as the Afghanistan Compaq, the Rome Conference on the Rule of Law or the approval of a new Supreme Court in August 2007 may provide key entry points to address judicial corruption in the country.

UNCAC and the Introduction of Budget Support (Jul 2007)

There are both implicit and explicit links between the Paris Declaration on Aid effectiveness and UNCAC preventive measures, especially in the area of mutual accountability, institution building through increased public accountability and participation or the improvement of national public procurement and public financial management systems (PFM). Within this framework however, the provision of budget support, while intended to enhance aid effectiveness as recommended by the Paris Declaration, has not demonstrated conclusively its ability to effectively address corruption risks. The UNCAC can be an essential contribution to the policy dialogue on corruption as it provides an international framework setting common standards. Budget support recipient countries can be supported in their anti-corruption efforts through the UNCAC technical assistance and exchange of information provisions.

Local Anti-Corruption Agencies: Pros and Cons (Jun 2007)

The experience of setting up Anti-Corruption Agencies (ACAs) has yielded mixed results in the past and is not a general panacea. However, although there is no concrete evidence that local ACAs are more effective than national ACAs, the examples of the independent anti-corruption commissions set up in Miami and New South Wales demonstrate promising signs of success. Whether national or local, the effectiveness of ACAs are influenced by a variety of factors including the domestic demand, the independence of the ACA from the executive, a supportive legal framework, enforcement capabilities, appropriate staffing and resources as well as accompanying training and awareness raising activities.

Corruption in the hydropower sector (Jun 2007)

Corruption in the energy sector may take many forms from petty corruption in meter reading and billing to grand corruption in procurement processes and contract administration. In the hydropower sector, specific corruption risks are associated at all stages of the project cycle from the early stage of selection of electricity options and hydropower sites to the contracting, construction, operation, maintenance and rehabilitation or decommissioning phases of the project. Six key actors are identified that can jointly engage in efforts against corruption in this sector, including international donors, export credit agencies and commercial banks, national governments, civil society, private sector companies as well as intergovernmental systems and international legal systems. Their respective role to combat corruption is explained in this expert answer.

Summaries of Literature on Costs of Corruption (May 2007)

This U4 Expert Answer presents a literature review of research on both the human and economic costs of corruption. Although by nature the economic costs of corruption are difficult to asses, most economists agree that there is a significant correlation between high levels of corruption and a range of negative economic impacts, such as lower levels of growth and investment. In fragile economies, the economic costs of high levels of corruption are especially punishing. The poor suffer most from its regressive impact.

Islamic approaches to corruption (May 2007)

Fighting corruption in an Islamic context must be rooted in the Islamic values guarded by the Sharia to ensure ownership, impact and legitimacy of measures. However, although Islamic law is implemented to some degree in most Middle East countries and strongly influences their legal codes, there is little evidence available of how Sharia law and courts specifically deal with corruption. Traditional Sharia Courts, complaint mechanisms or other Islamic institutions could potentially provide entry points for anti-corruption initiatives, provided they meet basic human rights and international legal standards. Concerns have been raised regarding the ability of Sharia courts and penal codes to meet these conditions.

Designing a strategy for anti-corruption knowledge management (Apr 2007)

Knowledge Management (KM) covers a wide range of activities aimed at facilitating the collection, documentation, use and dissemination of information. Anti-corruption KM programmes are still relatively new. Examples of bodies established to centralise and disseminate information on corruption in a systematic way include the National Corruption Observatory in Morocco, the Anti-Corruption Observatory in Cameroon, Advocacy and Legal Advice Centres (ALACs) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Romania and Anti-Corruption Resource Centres (ACRCs). When setting up such an institution, strategic decisions must be met on the scope, structure, channels and nature of a KM system depending on its target audience and intended purpose. Some of the challenges involved include making knowledge accessible to targeted audiences through the most appropriate channels, addressing potential resistance to knowledge sharing as well as maintaining quality standards and controls over time.

National Anti-Corruption Strategy in Tanzania (Apr 2007)

Tanzania has demonstrated and sustained its commitment to fight corruption since the early days of independence, as indicated by the launching of a National Anti-Corruption Strategy in December 2006. However, efforts to date haven’t always yielded the expected impact. The challenge is now to build on strengths (political leadership and ownership of reforms) and opportunities (country commitment to regional and international treaties such as the UNCAC), while promoting effective participation of civil society and coalition building at the implementation stage of the process.

Anti-corruption complaints mechanisms (Mar 2007)

Complaint mechanisms have been introduced in various development programmes and countries as diverse as Cambodia, Zimbabwe, North Caucasus and Pakistan to provide beneficiaries with a channel to report irregularities. They contribute to promote high standards of integrity in aid delivery by demonstrating agencies’ commitment and leadership against corruption, helping map corruption risks and empowering beneficiaries. To be credible however, they must have the capacity to manage and solve complaints, enforce recommendations, impose sanctions as well as protect whistle blowers. In addition, they should have an advisory, compliance and complaints handling role as well as be designed in a way that ensure that they are accessible, independent, transparent and accountable.

Incentives for the private sector to refrain from corruption (Feb 2007)

The environment of doing business has changed in recent years, urging companies to adopt and comply with more stringent anti-corruption norms and standards such as the OECD or the UNCAC conventions. In addition, corporate scandals have proved very costly for companies in terms of image, reputation and sustainability. There may also be some business incentives of preventing and punishing corruption, such as joining the Socially Responsible Investment (SRI) movement. A company that demonstrates anti-bribery commitments may also gain access to bidding lists of companies and public institutions which demand evidence of no-bribes policies.

Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in 6 African countries (Feb 2007)

This U4 Expert Answer provide an overview of governance and corruption indicators and assessments (CPI, Global Integrity scores, National Integrity Systems Country studies or GCR Country Reports) as well as information on anti-corruption efforts in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia.

Historical perspectives on corruption in Europe (Feb 2007)

There is generally very little literature on the history of corruption and as well as limited empirical work on corruption in Europe in the 19th century. However, historians seem to agree to say that corruption was endemic in Europe in the 18th century and gradually declined over time, throughout the 19th century. The two main reasons invoked for the decline in corruption are socio-political change and economic growth.

Tackling corruption in post-conflict situations (Feb 2007)

In wartime, corruption may be a strategy for ordinary people to survive and for armed faction to sustain power structures that serve their interest. As such, corruption triggers political unrest and facilitates conflict escalation. As a result, the challenges of tackling corruption in post-conflict situations are considerable, especially at the outset, when confusion reigns, institutions are being built and huge resources flow often into the country for reconstruction. Anti-corruption reforms in post-conflict situations should focus on gaining public support for reform by restoring the people’s trust in institutions, providing an appropriate economic and regulatory context and securing a legal framework for transparency and accountability. Special attention should be given to tackle corruption in both the security and judiciary sectors, to strengthen the new regime legitimacy and prevent backsliding into violence.

Corruption risks in environmental cooperation programmes (Jan 2007)

Corruption contributes to unsustainable environment practices and resource overuse, while granting elite groups control over natural resource wealth and potentially depriving other user groups. In development cooperation, corruption risks are especially acute in five critical areas, including environmental assessments, environmental policy formulation, implementation of environmental programmes monitoring and enforcement measures relating to environmental protection.

Natural resource tenure and corruption (Jan 2007)

Corruption opportunities can be generated at several levels of the of the land tenure systems starting from political interference at the policy development stage. Legislation dealing with land allocation and registration, land reform, tax legislation as well as legislation governing the management of natural resources can be especially vulnerable to corrupt practices, ultimately leading to severe environmental degradation. In addition to active participation in relevant regional and international initiatives such as the Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade processes (FLEGT), prevention measures should ensure inter alia the active involvement of target groups and civil society from the early stage of environmental programmes, the simplification of overly complex regulatory frameworks, the creation of transparent conflict management mechanisms as well as independent investigation and prosecution of misdemeanours.

Criteria for appointing executives of anti-corruption agencies (Jan 2007)

The criteria selected to appoint executives of anti-corruption agencies should ensure high standards of integrity and independence of nominated candidates. As the appointment and removal process of officeholders may have direct impact on the independence of the body, the appointment procedure should be transparent and involve a broader range of actors than those currently in political power. Recruitment procedures for non executive staff should similarly guarantee staff integrity and competence, regulation of appointments and dismissals as well as adequate salary levels. This U4 Answer concludes by assessing the criteria defined by the new Yemeni Anti-corruption law, in light of international standards.

Anti-corruption prosecutorial agencies: effectiveness and funding modalities (Dec 2006)

The funding modalities of investigative and prosecutorial agencies may lend themselves to potential for political manipulation and interference. This U4 Expert Answer analyses the independence, source of funding and course of anti-corruption prosecutions undertaken in Vietnam, Korea and Nigeria and provides information on anti-corruption agencies in Guatemala and Montenegro. It concludes that funding modalities are not the only relevant factor for prosecutional effectiveness and that the whole National Integrity System needs to be mobilised to address risks of political interference.

Using Blacklisting Against Corrupt Companies (Dec 2006)

What are the experiences with blacklisting? Is this a useful instrument? In which areas/sectors can this be used? What should a good blacklisting mechanism look like (duration of listing, indicator for listing etc)? Is blacklisting only good for listing companies or can it also be used elsewhere?

Sexual exploitation in peace-keeping missions (Nov 2006)

The term "sexual corruption" is used to describe the misuse of power in e.g. situations of dependency but also refers to the behavious of persons in critical environments such as peace keeping forces soldiers. What is the experience with sexual corruption, its occurence, dimension etc.? How are agencies dealing with it? What is the reponse from gender activists / organisations?

Corruption in Eritrea (Nov 2006)

Corruption in Eritrea: According to TI' perception index, Eritrea is a rather corrupt country. I find this puzzling. When I was stationed there in 1997-98 petty corruption(and petty crime) was not accepted in the society and bribing not practiced in public administration. I would like to know what has changed. I know, of course, that the situation for civil servants and citizens have changed dramatically since then but still find it difficult to imagine that people have changed that much.

UNCAC and Africa (Oct 2006)

Could you please share any information on the experience of African countries in ratifying the UN Convention against Corruption? Which countries have ratified? Do you have any information on the processes leading up to ratification and the drivers for gaining the political support for ratification? Also, do you have anything on experience of any country in Africa that has ratified and what difference this has made ?

International experience with asset declarations (Sep 2006)

What is the international experience with the asset/wealth declaration of public officials? Are there any good practices? Are there any IT-solutions for managing and publishing? Which institutions are generally in charge of managing the data?

Categorization of anti-corruption interventions (Sep 2006)

I am looking to categorize all of DFID's work that relates to anti-corruption, not only interventions identified as anti-corruption but also interventions with anti-corruption components. Does such a classification exist and if not can you help me get an outlined framework of intervention types in place?

Anti-corruption conventions and EITI (Aug 2006)

Anti-corruption conventions and EITI: What is the focus of EITI to conventions? What would be the potential in the context of the OECD Convention against Bribery and the UNCAC vis-a-vis EITI?

Anti-corruption hotlines (Jul 2006)

What are the pros and cons of establishing hotlines for reporting on instances of corruption or suspicions of corruption for aid agencies? Which aid agencies have established such hotlines? What are their routines for such hotlines? What kind of literature is available on this topic?

Zambian National Anti-Corruption Strategy (Jun 2006)

Zambia is in the middle of developing a National Corruption Prevention Policy and Stategy. One of the key areas missing is policy disposal. Do you have examples of a good policy which also has asset disposal guidelines for items recovered in the fight against corruption? Further, is there best practice on coordination in the implementation of such a strategy. Lastly, I would be grateful for any comments on the attached policy and strategy

Creating an embassy-wide anti-corruption strategy (Jun 2006)

Our embassy in Mozambique is updating its anti-corruption strategy and would like to have advice on what to include in such a strategy. It will mainly focus on preventive measures in relation to our development cooperation but also touch on on measures to take in case corruption is uncovered within any of our programmes/projects.

Legal responses to corruption (May 2006)

Question One: What are the implications of promoting asymmetric punishment in anti-corruption laws (i.e. punishing the bribe giver only?). Question Two: How is the burden of proof regulated in UNCAC and other conventions?

Corruption in the education sector in Bangladesh (Apr 2006)

Are there any reports specifically targetting corruption and education in Bangladesh? If so - what are the patterns of corruption and how can one design measures to counter these patterns?

Gender and corruption (Apr 2006)

Could you give me input on 1.gendersensitiviness with respect to corruption; 2. gendersensitiviness in an anti-corruption policy; 3. genderspecific examples in corruption and anti-corruption measures or policy.

Political corruption in Zambia (Mar 2006)

How does the will to fight political corruption / grand corruption in Zambia compare to other African countries, for example, Kenya and South Africa? What is the potential for success in the fight against corruption? By success I mean prosecutions and public outrage.

Corruption in PFM in Mali (Mar 2006)

Following up on our previous query in the health and education sectors in Mali, are there studies on corruption in the Public Financial Management (PFM) system as well as direct budget support in Mali?

Procurement processes and political corruption (Mar 2006)

What information is available on the political dimensions of procurement?

Corruption in the health and education sectors in Mali (Mar 2006)

Have there been any reports on corruption in the Health and/or the Education sector in Mali?

Anti-corruption reform in the Middle East (Feb 2006)

Could you please specify the obstacles to tackling corruption in countries in the Middle East? What are the main impediments to developing effective preventive measures against corruption? My special interest is Egypt.

Use of Integrity Pacts (Feb 2006)

Could you give me information about experiences using project integrity pacts? My sense is that integrity pacts have mainly been used in large-scale procurement projects, not as part of the day-to-day interaction between public officials and the public. I would appreciate your views and experiences with these kind of pacts (including at the local level and small scale business).

Using the OECD Convention against multinational companies in the extractive industries (Jan 2006)

How can the OECD Bribery Convention - and other instruments - be used to address the corrupt practices of multinational companies in the extractive industries?

Anti-corruption clearing houses (Jan 2006)

What is an Anti-Corruption Clearning House? What would be the potential of such a structure / institution? What experience is available?

Corruption risk assessment tools for use in development projects (Jan 2006)

Would it be possible to provide an overview of diagnostic tools that can be used to determine corruption risks in programmes and projects? I'm especially interested in tools that can be used to determine corruption risk during the programme development phase in order to develop appropriate mitigating measures (if necessary).

Corruption in NGOs (Jan 2006)

With increasing corruption at the State level, some would argue that aid should be channeled through grassroots organizations rather than through the government(i.e budget support). I wonder if you have any analysis or references about the state of corruption in NGOs and grassroot organisations.

Overview of corruption in Burkina Faso (Jan 2006)

Could you provide us with an analysis of the corruption situation in Burkina Faso?

The use of amnesties in tackling corruption (Jan 2006)

Are there examples of amnesties which have been used in tackling corruption? If so, under what circumstances have these worked well or not?

Looting of state assets as a development issue (Dec 2005)

Asset recovery is a key priority in many developing countries and the UNCAC contains a Chapter specifically dedicated to this issue. Direct impact of the looting of state assets on development includes the diversion of public funds from their intended development purposes and the erosion of public trust in the ruling government and governance processes. It also acts as a deterrent for foreign investments and business and direct public spending towards areas that provide the best opportunities for illicit enrichment rather than to development outcomes. This expert Answer provides data and figures that illustrate the scale of the problem and its potential impact on development.

Scale of corruption/stolen assets in Africa (Dec 2005)

This U4 Expert Answer provides corruption data and sources to asses the scale of the problem of stolen assets in selected African countries. Although very little information is available on actual amounts of embezzled funds, data was found on Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Kenya, which are perceived to be the most corrupt of the countries. Two recent initiatives on asset recovery are of special relevance in this area. The G8 asset recovery declaration makes provision for a series of initiatives aiming at helping victim state recover illicit acquired assets while the UNODC asset recovery initiative is running two pilot projects on recovery of proceeds of corruption in Kenya and Nigeria.

Consequences and tracking of corruption in development aid (Dec 2005)

Corruption in aid delivery can occur at any stage of the project cycle, from the project selection to the implementation and evaluation phases of the project. The areas of procurement and financial management are especially vulnerable to corruption. When providing direct budget support, aid delivery is vulnerable to the same forms of corruption that affect the management of national budgets, at the formulation, execution and evaluation phases of the budget cycle. Tracking corruption in development aid requires increased access to information and disclosure through a combination of various tools such as monitoring and evaluation, expenditure tracking, auditing, fiduciary risks assessments or impact assessments.

Drafting and implementing anti-corruption strategies (Dec 2005)

It is widely recognised that there is no blueprint against corruption. Each country should tailor and implement its Anti-Corruption Strategy (ACS) according to its specific circumstances through a participatory process involving both state and non-state stakeholders. Examples of ACS meriting special attention for their contents or design process include strategies developed and implemented in Hong Kong, Estonia, Ghana, Pakistan or the United Kingdom.

The Efficacy and Transferability of ‘Anti-Corruption Observatories’ (Nov 2005)

Anti-corruption observatories are relatively recent initiatives that support anti-corruption efforts at national level by facilitating information exchange and awareness raising activities. This U4 Expert Answers looks at the structure, activities and effectiveness of different observatory models in various countries, including anti-corruption observatories in Morocco and Cameroon, Administrative and Legal Advice Centres (ALAC) in Bosnia Herzegovina, Macedonia and Romania, Anti-Corruption Resource Centres (ACRC) in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Although evaluations of the effectiveness and transferability of such bodies are still limited, experience to date has generally been positive. Key strengths of this model appear to be their independence and inclusiveness.

Petty corruption and shadow economies (Oct 2005)

In addition to imposing a heavy financial burden on individuals, especially the poor, petty corruption can facilitate illicit activities such as smuggling and trafficking and ultimately foster the development of informal activities and shadow economy. Research indicates that the size of the shadow economy is largely determined by factors related to governance, while corruption is consistently associated with more unofficial activity. Further findings confirm that institutional quality reduces both the shadow economy and corruption.

Implementing UNCAC (Oct 2005)

As the first global anti-corruption treaty, the UNCAC provides a key platform for donors in the field of anti-corruption and good governance. It can be used to set standards in donor countries, to guide donor agencies’ own practices as well as to set standards in recipient countries. It provides a useful framework to guide development assistance for anti-corruption programmes. A number of international initiatives and platforms focus on facilitating the UNCAC ratification and implementation process. These include the UNODC Global Programme Against Corruption (GPAC) and other initiatives led by UNDP, OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) and its network on Governance (GOVNET), the ADB and Transparency International.

International initiatives relating to the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (Sep 2005)

There are a number of international initiatives aiming at promoting better fiscal transparency, accountability and reporting. For example, initiatives such as the Save the children’s Measuring Transparency project, Revenue Watch or Publish What You Pay campaigns call for revenue transparency through disclosure of all payments made by oil, gas and mining industries to host governments for the extraction of natural resources. Other initiatives such as the UN Global Compact, the Global Reporting Initiative or the Kimberley Process provide further relevant examples of multi- stakeholder voluntary accountability and reporting mechanisms seeking to promote a more sustainable, accountable and responsible global environment.

Preventing, identifying and curbing corruption in donor-supported projects (Aug 2005)

Donor agencies can safeguard development projects from corruption at two levels, first by strengthening their own internal practices especially with regards to project selection, procurement and disbursement processes, and second by supporting partner countries efforts to fight corruption and strengthen national integrity systems. Mechanisms such as external audits of selected projects, corruption hotlines or access to information provisions can help identify particular instances of abuse. In addition, donor agencies have developed a number of response strategies when corruption is exposed, ranging from debarment from future projects, internal disciplinary measures against staff involved to legal actions undertaken by recipient country authorities.

Corruption and public financial management (PFM) systems in Ghana (Aug 2005)

Various assessments of Ghana’s PFM note substantial efforts made in recent years to improve fiscal transparency through new PFM legislation, strengthened control of expenditure commitments or improved annual budget statements. Weaknesses remain in the areas of internal auditing, oversight and fiscal reporting. This U4 Expert Answer further provides a brief description of anti-corruption bodies and initiatives coordinated by government, civil society or donor agencies that are of relevance to strengthen Ghana’s PFM.

Role of education in fighting corruption (Jul 2005)

Education and training are essential elements of any sustainable anti-corruption strategy. This U4 Expert Answer provides examples of anti-corruption educational courses and training delivered in partnerships with universities in Australia, Hong Kong, Hungary, Colombia and Kazakhstan. Transparency International’s Special Edition of its Corruption Fighters' Tool Kit is exclusively dedicated to youth anti-corruption education. A selection of case studies further highlights various anti-corruption education initiatives targeting the youth that contribute to fostering a zero-tolerance approach to corruption, and to building demand for accountability.

Corruption and the scaling up of aid (Jun 2005)

Most corruption risks applicable to aid in general are also associated with the scaling up of aid. When increasing support however, additional risks may be triggered by pressures to disperse larger amounts of funds more quickly, the limited absorption capacity of recipient countries and high fiduciary risks due to weak budget institutions. Further areas of concern when considering rapid increase of aid include the risk of undermining domestic ownership, macroeconomic problems created by large additional resource flows and their potential negative impact on domestic accountability. These various challenges will require even stronger governance, accountability and financial management capacity both on recipients' as well as donors' side.

Tackling forms of corruption that affect the poor most (Jun 2005)

Corruption disproportionally hits the poor both through its negative impact on their access to essential services, income levels and livelihoods as well as through its indirect impact on growth and development outcomes. As a result, it is difficult to single out specific forms of corruption that affect the poor most. Anti-corruption reforms should be holistic through a multi-pronged and multifaceted process. Beneficiary participation and empowerment is a crucial component of any pro-poor anti-corruption initiative at all stage of the budget process, especially in the tracking of public funds and expenditure. Report cards on public services are another powerful tool to mobilise the public and intended beneficiaries.

Anti-corruption legislation (Jun 2005)

Anti-corruption legislation should provide a comprehensive legal framework that goes beyond criminal law provisions against active and passive forms of bribery. Such framework should cover a wide range of prevention and enforcement measures such as the establishment of anti-corruption institutions and agencies or legislation regulating issues such as access to information, conflict of interest, whistle blower protection or freedom of expression. Good practice examples have been developed in South Africa, Singapore and Hong Kong. At the international level, provisions should be made for mutual legal assistance and for monitoring of the implementation of international treaties at national level.

Corruption in culture and media (May 2005)

Culture and media can play a meaningful role against corruption in shaping values, denouncing corruption and calling for more transparency and accountability. However, there is little research available on corruption in the culture sector. A preliminary analysis of the sector identifies risks associated with the specific nature of cultural activities, including in the allocation of professional award and competitions, cultural exchange programmes, performance tours and exhibitions. Grand corruption can also occur in procurement and licensing processes, construction and renovation of monuments, budget management, etc. The effectiveness of the media in countering corruption can also be undermined by corruption, unethical or journalistic conduct and standards, concentration of ownership or a repressive legal and political environment.

Common points at which corruption occurs in development programmes (May 2005)

This discussion focuses on the most common ways public funds can be misused in development programmes. Processes regarded to be most vulnerable to corruption include public procurement as well as construction and infrastructure works, which involve complex contracts and multi-stage processes. A detailed breakdown of the corruption risks associated at each stage of the procurement processes and construction work is provided as an annex to this answer. There is further scope for misusing public funds through a variety of financial malpractices and the looting of public assets by top officials in power. The reallocation of funds from central to local entities can also be driven by corrupt motives.

Quantity and quality of corruption in Rwanda (May 2005)

Quantitative data indicates that corruption is relatively controlled in Rwanda in comparison with many other African countries. Corruption still occurs at the top level, most commonly through fraudulent procurement practices, unauthorised spending and misuse of public funds. Several institutions such as the Ombudsman’s office, the office of the Auditor General or the National Tender Board deal with corruption and have taken relatively strong stand, imposing serious sentences or disciplinary measures. For example, politicians and civil servants are required to declare their wealth and may be prosecuted if they don’t comply with this requirement.

Experiences with anti-corruption stakeholder meetings (Apr 2005)

Anti-corruption multi-stakeholder meetings have been carried out in a number of countries at national and sectoral levels, bringing together actors form the public, private and non governmental sector to create, review or revitalise sectoral/national anti-corruption strategies. They may culminate in the design of an action plan that identifies practical measures and assigns responsibilities for implementation and/or in concrete stakeholders ‘commitment against corruption. They are usually initiated at times of political change, building on the momentum for change, but may also be used to revitalise past reforms. Factors such as the preparation, ownership, timing and publicity are crucial to the success of the initiative. It is also important to ensure the political back up of key actors and participation of a broad and strategic range of stakeholders.

Resources on Corruption in the Construction Sector (Jan 2005)

Construction is one of the sectors most affected by corruption. The scale of corruption in the construction sector is a reflection of the size, scope and complexity of contractual structure, making it one of the sectors most affected by corruption. International standards and business principles applying to the construction sector which expressively exclude corrupt practices have been recommended in various forums, including during the 2004 World Economic Forum Partnering Against Corruption Initiative (PACI). Practical tools have been designed to prevent corruption in construction and public contracting, such as the use of integrity pacts or the implementation of sector relevant codes of conducts, e.g. agency due diligence, business partner due diligence or claim management codes. Construction and engineering companies should also undertake effective due diligence on agents, business partners, suppliers and subcontractors.

Corruption and humanitarian relief (Jan 2005)

In addition to common aid related corruption risks, specific corruption opportunities may arise or become more acute in the context of disaster relief and humanitarian assistance. In the relief aid stage, large amounts of funds flow into countries, procurement is performed under emergency circumstances and distribution of goods and services are vulnerable to corrupt networks or bureaucratic obstacles. Further corruption risks emerge in the reconstruction stage. Measures aimed at increasing accountability through transparency, access to information, beneficiaries’ participation and empowerment, public disclosure and reporting may help contain corruption in such context. Introducing bureaucratic requirements and unnecessary delays should be avoided to reduce corruption in situations of disaster relief.

Anti-corruption diagnostics/assessments on Georgia, Moldova and Tajikistan (Nov 2004)

Do you have suggestions for other possible sources of information on fiduciary risk for Georgia, Moldova and Tajikistan? Unfortunately neither Transparency International National Integrity Studies nor WBI diagnostic tools exist for these countries.

Direct budget support and corruption (Oct 2004)

As many donors our agency is particularly concerned about the relation between general budget support and corruption. Our country's citizens also have a strong concern on the matter and we aim at providing the best possible and honest answer to that concern. What do donors know by now? Specific examples? What would be a good reply to the public´s concern?

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives and the UN Anti-Corruption Convention (Oct 2004)

How realistic is it that EITI will lead to better governance including less corruption and a more broad-based development in the countries concerned? Are the any planned links between the adoption of the EITI principles and the ratification and implementation UN anti-corruption convention in the countries concerned? If not, is there any added value in linking the two? Do you have any proposals in that respect?

Anti-Corruption in Punjab (Oct 2004)

Please provide information on any provincial level anti-corruption diagnostics or reports on Punjab, Pakistan (we already have the NIS study). Are there any local CSOs active in Punjab on anti-corruption/transparency promotion other than TI? Are there any anti-corruption analysts knowledgeable about Punjab whom who would recommend?

Uganda’s National Anti-Corruption Strategy and PRSC processes (Oct 2004)

We need advice on the AC indicators in the Uganda PRSC process, as well as information about other countries' experiences where AC measures have been conditions for WB loans. How do such possible donor/ conditionality-driven AC strategies influence the outcome?

Could the South African anti-corruption law serve as a model in Sierra Leone? (Oct 2004)

Our agency is sending a consultant (lawyer) Sierra Leone to review the current anti-corruption legislation with a view to amending and improving it. She would like to see a copy of the South African Corruption Convention 1992 (act no 94 of 1992). Would you have a copy you could send me or direct me where I could get a copy from? It has been suggested that the South African model may not be the most suitable for Sierra Leone. If you have any other ideas of legislation from other countries that you feel may be more suitable I would be grateful for any recommendations you can make.

Pointers to good anti-corruption strategies (incl. in-house) (Oct 2004)

What should a good anti-corruption corporate strategy consist of? And do you have a definition on "corporate strategy"?

Corruption and its Impact on the Poor (May 2004)

Please provide as many as possible of very short examples of how corruption affects the lives of poor people, with sources, and drawing on examples from outside the TI movement as well.

Corruption in Pakistan (May 2004)

Please provide information about the key sectors affected by corruption in Pakistan, recent initiatives to tackle it, and local institutions and people involved in anti-corruption work. Please also provide any recent corruption diagnostic or survey material available on Pakistan.

National Action Plans to combat Corruption (with focus on experience in Sub-Saharan Africa) (May 2004)

Could you give me examples of good National Action Plan to combat corruption, preferably from Sub Saharan Africa. I would be very thankful if you could give me a short reply in a few days.

The UN Convention Against Corruption and the donor community (May 2004)

I would appreciate very much if you could provide suggestions of how donors could use the UN Convention Against Corruption as a tool to promote good governance in general and anti-corruption in particular.

Agency theory and public finance accountability (Apr 2004)

I am looking for reference documents on the application principle-agent model and agency theory in public sector management and specifically in public finance accountability. This includes the role of oversight agencies, such as national audit offices, and anticorruption mechanisms to assist parliaments in carrying out their accountability responsibilities in public finance management.

Government-led Efforts in Curbing Public Sector Corruption (Apr 2004)

I would be grateful for a short synthesis of examples of good practice tackling corruption within the public sector in Malaysia, Korea and India. Examples at a national and sub-national level would be particularly useful.

NGO campaigns to change attitudes and behavior (Mar 2004)

1. Do NGOs like TI that are undertaking awareness-raising campaigns take the experience of advertising agencies into consideration or do they perhaps work with advertising agencies? 2. Can you suggest where I can find studies on experience with campaigns aimed at change of attitude and behaviour in countries where a significant share of the population are poor and illiterate?

Information on the UN Convention against Corruption (Mar 2004)

Which countries have signed the United Nations Convention Against Corruption. Where is the text of the convention available? The help desk does not contain the key word UN convention.

Donor support to Civil Society Organisations as a means to reduce corruption (Mar 2004)

What do you think should be a donor strategy with respect to support of civil society for the purpose of reducing corruption?

Anti-Corruption Measures in the Land Sector (Feb 2004)

State land capture in countries in transition by powerful people, corruption in land reform, in illegal land transactions in peri-urban areas, in the land concession business for agri-business and mining, The query is particularly urgent, since I will be involved in forming a task force in "Land Policy and Good Governance in international cooperation" next week.

Signatories of the Africa Union Convention against corruption (Feb 2004)

Which countries have a)signed b) ratified the Africa Union Convention on prevention and combatting corruption?

Commissions/Tribunals of Enquiries for Probing Corruption Cases (Feb 2004)

1. Can we introduce a system (similar to that used in the recent 'The Director of Public Prosecutions is a spy' case in South Africa), to obtain evidence and clear the innocent without resorting to a full criminal trial?. if so; 2. Where should the power to constitute such a provision lie? Should it be outlined in the Anti-Corruption Commission Act? And; 3. Who should sit on such a commission?

Linkages between corruption and human trafficking (Jan 2004)

Please describe some linkages between corruption and human trafficking. Which are possible counter-measures?

Corruption diagnostics and measurement tools (Dec 2003)

Corruption can occur in the delivery of education services during the transfer of resources from the central to the local government, from local governments to schools, and during the delivery of education services. There are several options for tackling corruption in education, through holistic and/or targeted approaches. In countries like Uganda where corruption is rampant, quick win strategies with high visibility may help secure support for reform. Such measures can involve awareness raising activities, training of teachers, or moving the responsibility of teacher payment and employment away from central or local governments. In the medium term, reforms could focus on promoting access to information, reforming procurement processes for education goods and improving accountability structures. In the longer term, efforts can be directed to all encompassing approaches and focus on strengthening anti-corruption institutions and promoting a change of attitudes, behaviours and the insti

Government Procurement Systems: Centralised vs Decentralised (Dec 2003)

Mozambique is about to introduce new procurement rules. A recent WB procurement study estimates that on average there is an "overpricing" of 50% due to weak procurement practices. An initial proposal presented by a Portuguese consultant outlined a decentralised system checked by external post audits. Recently a Brazilian consultant proposed to introduce a Central Procurement Board in the tradition of old fashioned British & French colonial adm type, which according to our view only has attracted big corruption in addition to becoming an operational bottleneck in various respects. What is your advice on this issue?

HIV and corruption: Identifying some links (Dec 2003)

Material focussing specifically on the links between HIV/AIDS and corruption in Africa is scarce. These links do not seem to differ substantially from corruption in the more general health sector. Issues relating to corruption in the prevention and treatment of HIV include fraud in procurements, misappropriation of public funds earmarked for HIV treatment and prevention, misappropriation of medication as well as request for illicit payments for treatment.

Auditing Standards of Local Branches of International Auditing Firms (Nov 2003)

What is the advice on how to go about controlling local branches (or franchises) of International Auditing Firms? Is there any independent international body regulating and inspecting private audit companies? Do these companies run any kind of per review mechanism?

Tax-Deductibility of Bribes: Progress Report (Nov 2003)

Several countries have now removed the opportunity for tax-deduction of bribes-related costs (I am aware that OECD in particular has worked on this). Is there any up-to-date overview of countries that still retain the right for tax-deduction of bribe-costs?

Mobutu, World Bank and the IMF in Zaire/DRC (Oct 2003)

Few sources have specifically dealt with the role of the World Bank and IMF in Mobutu’s Zaire or their failing to tackle corruption issues. A few general works listed here focus on Zaire under the Mobutu regime making extensive reference to the WB/IMF actions during this time.

Africa: Scale of corruption and impact on poor (Oct 2003)

The most commonly employed mechanisms for generating quantitative data on corruption are surveys, economic analysis or estimates based thereon. At regional levels, the World Bank governance indicators, TI Corruption Perception Index, the Southern African Democracy Barometer as well as TI’ Global Corruption Barometer provide valuable information on the extent of corruption in Africa. At the national level, various corruption surveys have been conducted in Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Morocco, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda between 1996 and 2003. Corruption in Africa is not only perceived to be widespread but costly. There have been attempts to quantify the impact of corruption on the national economy, aid effectiveness, revenue collection and household expenditure. But the cost of corruption can not only be measured in terms of the loss of funds but also in terms of delayed development and increased inequalities.

Approaches to fighting corruption in education (Oct 2003)

What kind of measures can the Embassy take concerning curbing corruption in education? Is it feasible for the Embassy to exert more influence concerning accountability and transparency? Should there be a bigger focus on institutions supposed to fight corruption in Uganda? Is it an option to give more support to civil society? Would supporting teacher-parents organisations be an option? Could you give me titles and authors of articles for me to read?

Special courts for corruption cases (Sep 2003)

Experiences of establishing special corruption courts can be seen in Pakistan, Philippines and Kenya. International organisations have also recommended establishing courts devoted to corruption cases in other countries such as Nigeria, Romania, Morocco or Bangladesh. Their need and effectiveness has been debated over time. Some countries have used a unified general system with judges who have already acquired expertise in handling corruption cases. One of the risks associated with special corruption courts is their potential of being misused for political purposes, as it has been suggested in the case of the Pakistan’s National Accountability Bureau.

Measures addressing State Capture in Russia/Ukraine/Central Asia (Sep 2003)

Experts suggest that the roots of state capture in this region range from partial civil liberties, lack of transparency, competition and insecurity of property rights. Key writings on the topic recommend addressing state capture issues by promoting more comprehensive economic reform, tackling the incentives on the supply side of state corruption and addressing transparency and competition related issues. It is recommended that the business community be engaged in the reform process. In Russia, where state capture and business capture are taking place in two parallel processes, key measures to address the situation include the introduction of conflict of interest regulations, codes of conduct and wide ranging transparency reforms. In spite of a number of laws that have been adopted to regulate elections, party finance and lobbying in Ukraine, funding sources for political parties remain a challenging issue. Although not entirely satisfactory, some recent progress has been made in Kazakh

Sequencing of Anti-corruption Measures in Post-conflict Countries (Aug 2003)

The sequencing and timing of anti-corruption reform are crucial for successful implementation. In post conflict countries, reform efforts should have a strong emphasis on institution building. An assessment of the existing (or remaining) institutions and their capacity is a crucial first step in this process, especially with regard to public finance institutions. Particular attention should also be paid to enlisting support from influential individuals and considering the use of amnesties to secure support for reform. In addition, the rebuilding of the physical infrastructures relies on large flows of aid as well as the presence of reconstruction programmes that require particularly strong internal controls alongside sound financial management to prevent corruption and embezzlement. A selection of readings and initiatives on anti-corruption reform efforts relevant to post conflict situations is provided.

DRC State Corruption and the International Response: Selected References (Jul 2003)

Corruption has become a commonly used tool to pursue personal goals and group agendas in Congo. Forms of corruption have been extremely numerous and varied, with a corrosive impact both at the structural and agency levels. It has led to a system commonly known as “kleptocracy” or government by theft, with a subsequent impoverishment of people, destruction of infrastructure and enrichment of the elite close to the power structures. The exploitation of key natural resources has further complicated the national environment and is believed to have contributed to the prolonging of the war in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The US and Belgium have been in the forefront of international efforts in the country, including on the issue of corruption.

Anti-corruption and accountability in Anglophone vs. Francophone governance traditions (Jul 2003)

The legal and administrative systems of countries following the French traditions significantly differ from the Anglophone based systems. Traditionally, the French administrative system evolved around the notion of a unitary state, reflected in the strong emphasis on hierarchy and reporting lines. The French administration is accountable for its actions to the executive and to a number of other watchdog organisations. However, even across countries that have inherited the French systems, legal and administrative practices, as well as levels and forms of corruption, may vary significantly. Anti-corruption systems established in Benin, Senegal and Niger, for example, indicate that choices made with regard to the setting and operation of state control institutions, prosecution measures or systemic reforms depend on the specific political circumstance of each country. At the international level, Francophone Africa is characterised by a Franco-African model of relations and ties that introd

Anti-corruption Legal Provisions in the Context of Decentralisation (Jul 2003)

When poorly designed and implemented, decentralisation can lead to more corrupt opportunities, risk of political capture by the local elite, and a decrease in public service delivery due to maladministration and insufficient capacities at the local level. Legal anti-corruption tools can be introduced to limit corruption risks associated with decentralisation. They typically includes measures such as the introduction of codes of conduct and conflict of interest provisions, access to information laws, declaration of assets held by local public officials, public procurement regulations as well as definitions of sanctions for corrupt behaviours. The impact of such legal provisions depends on the capacity of the enforcing institutions and the quality of accompanying legislative measures to prevent and expose corrupt transactions.

Corruption within the tax system (Jul 2003)

Corruption in the tax system has been found rampant in many countries, resulting in reduction of tax revenues, increased income inequality and diminished capacity of the state to fulfil its obligations. Indicators of corruption in the tax system relate either to the institutional context or to staff related issues. Institutional factors such as excessive income tax, red tape and inadequate enforcement of regulations are factors increasing the likelihood of corruption in the tax system. Complex tax regulations create opportunities for public officials to exercise discretionary powers while bribe payers seek to evade tax. Specific measures that have been promoted as likely to reduce public officials’ opportunities for corruption include the standardisation of procedures, simplification of the tax system, professionalism of tax services, reform of the incentive structure and establishment of semi-independent revenue authorities.

Anti-corruption bureaus and anti-corruption in Bangladesh (Jun 2003)

The advantage of specialised and independent anti-corruption agencies is that they are exclusively devoted to fighting corruption. Successful operation of such agencies depends on both the determination and integrity of its staff and the political will of country leaders. The agency needs adequate resources, the guarantee of independence and inter-institutional support to operate effectively. In Bangladesh, the Bureau of Anti-corruption is based in the Prime Minister’s office. TI Bangladesh has produced an investigative report on this institution in 2001, providing recommendations to make it more effective in restraining corruption.

Corruption Information on Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Niger and Senegal (Jun 2003)

This query focuses on five West African countries and the common features of corruption that have been identified in corruption resources. Anti-corruption laws and institutions are in place across much of West Africa. They are usually perceived as being donor driven in highly aid dependant contexts, criticised for their ineffectiveness as well as for the gap between government’s anti-corruption rhetoric and the impunity of public officials. Although constitutions guarantee the right to information and freedom of expression in most Western African countries, no effort has been made to pass the necessary legislation to put freedom of information into practice. While civil society is generally weak in the region, CSOs have taken the lead against corruption in some countries such as Senegal and Burkina Faso.

Anti-Corruption Agencies: Staffing and Financial Management Issues (Jun 2003)

Various factors may determine the effectiveness of Anti-corruption agencies (ACAs). In terms of staffing, it is of crucial importance to ensure high standards of staff integrity, regulate appointments and dismissals, maintain expertise and continuous training and provide for adequate salary levels. The setting and operation of successful ACAs also involves the allocation of substantial costs as well as adequate human and financial resources.

Corruption in Political Party Financing and Electoral Campaigns (Apr 2003)

Money and politics are inextricably linked. The functioning of contemporary democracies necessitates political financing and the combination of private and public funding sources. However, there is a strong need to control unfair and illegal practices and to regulate political finance in light of the role political parties play in the democratic process. Attempts to regulate political finance typically include codes of conducts for political parties, disclosure rules, contributions. and expenditure limits. A number of factors are likely to have an impact on the effectiveness of such regulatory regimes, including the quality of the regulation as well as political will and commitment. Public agencies in charge of ensuring effective implementation of political finance regulations vary from country to country (e.g. governmental departments, the Attorney General, audit offices or state controller). The scope of their mandate, independence, technical and financial capacity are contributing f

Measurement of corruption: Up-to-date readings (Apr 2003)

Despite the availability of numerous comparative surveys, there are not many measurement tools that indicate changes over time in absolute terms. Some national surveys could potentially provide insight but very few of them have been repeated consistently using the same methodology. Surveys such as the Kenyan Urban Bribery Index, the Global Corruption Barometer or Latinobarometer have been conducted on a more regular basis and may provide information on trends over time. Macroeconomic costs of corruption are difficult to assess because it is difficult to collect hard and precise data on the scale and frequency of corrupt transactions. However, economists agree that there is a significant correlation between corruption and the range of negative economic consequences that distorts the operation of markets, composition of public expenditures, levels of foreign direct investments and growth.

Corruption data on five countries (Mar 2003)

Mozambique, Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Macedonia could not be included in the official list of countries ranked by the 2002 CPI because there were less than 3 sources of data for these countries. However, all mentioned countries are provided with a rating - measured with less precision than the ranked countries - that is attached to this answer.

Supreme Audit Institutions and Corruption (Feb 2003)

Supreme Audit Institutions are fundamental institutions of accountability, combining both deterrent and preventive functions. Different kinds of audits can promote better accountability including financial audits, compliance audits, performance audits as well as ethical audits. Of particular relevance to the fight against corruption is their role in fostering sound financial management and internal controls, making audit reports available to the public, ensuring follow up on implementation of recommendations, and increasing public awareness of corruption risks. Effectiveness of Supreme Audit Institutions can be gauged by using the following criteria: 1) transparency in the appointments processes of auditors, 2) institutional independence, 3) the extent to which its institutional environment is enabling, 4) adherence to international auditing standards, 5) timely publication of reports. Utstein agencies such as NORAD, GTZ and the Netherlands have been providing support to Supreme Audit

'Transparency Certification' for a country like Mozambique (Feb 2003)

Is there any good example/best practice how to get some form of "transparency certification" going in a country like Mozambique?

Recovery of Corruption-Related Assets (Jan 2003)

Successful repatriations of stolen assets, such as those in the case of Vladimiro Montesinos and the governments of Switzerland and Peru, have been scarce. Examples of major cases include the Abacha and Marcos case, wherein partial or conditional recoveries were achieved. The successful outcomes of asset recoveries depend on a variety of factors and circumstances, including political will in the applicant and respondent states, financial resources and expertise, the national legal framework and international cooperation, as well as the banking and money laundering regulations. ln the area of asset freezing, alternative methods to criminal prosecutions are civil actions frameworks that provide for civil forfeiture (recently introduced in the USA) as well as money-laundering frameworks.