U4 Helpdesk Query

Content

• Part I provides examples of noteworthy anti-corruption strategies.
  
• Part II presents a selection of recommended reading on anti-corruption strategies.
  

Please also refer to the related Expert Answer:

National Action Plans to combat corruption (with focus on experience in Sub-Saharan Africa)

U4 helpdesk reply

Development of anti-corruption strategies (ACS) is one of the ways in which governments and societies at large can organise their anti-corruption efforts. The decision whether or not to have such a strategy should be achieved through a participatory needs-assessment exercise involving both state and non-state stakeholders, including civil society and the private sector. Exercises of this kind should ideally assess the level and type of corruption in a given country along with an array of institutional factors. Comparative examination of international good practice and other countries' experiences should also be part of the process.

There is widespread recognition among practitioners and academics alike that there are no universally applicable types of ACS. Rather, each country must carefully tailor and implement its own particular strategy. The strategy chosen should depend on how widespread or isolated corruption is in a given country; on the state of the governing institutions; their capability to engage in efforts to counter corruption; and on a whole range of political and economic factors. Despite the importance of individual country circumstances, and thus the limitations of general discussion, some common trends and approaches can be successfully captured and analysed.

These key approaches in designing and implementing anti-corruption strategies are identified and discussed in the attached chapter on Government Anti-Corruption Strategies (authored by Anna Hakobyan for TI's Anti-Corruption Handbook, 2005).
The chapter contains detailed advice on how to tailor effective anti-corruption strategies (including a listing of challenges to consider), implement the various aspects of the strategy and establish monitoring mechanisms. The chapter also contains examples of anti-corruption strategies and further recommended reading on the topic. For ease of reference, parts of these are included in the sections to follow.

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Part I: Examples of Anti-Corruption Strategies

The following section lists examples of national anti-corruption strategies, where either the content of the strategy and/or the process used in its preparation and implementation, merit attention.

Hong Kong
The anti-corruption strategy of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China is commonly used as best practice by anti-corruption practitioners worldwide. Its three-pronged approach focusing on prevention, punishment and education has proven to be very effective. Hong Kong has a well-established Independent Commission against Corruption (ICAC), which is the main body responsible for implementation of the anti-corruption strategy and activities.

Estonia
The strategy of the Estonian government, entitled the 'Honest State', proposes a number of specific steps aimed at reducing the risks of corruption in Estonia. It looks both at prevention and prosecution in an equally systematic manner. A timetable with specific actions and target delivery dates accompanies the strategy. The timeframe is 2004-2007.A copy of the strategy and further information about the government's 'Honest State' initiative is available online.

Ghana
For an interesting analysis of lessons learned with regard to strategy and action plan drafting processes, the following document describing Ghana's experience is noteworthy. It raises essential points with regard to the importance of consensus building, political will and participatory drafting when preparing a county strategy and action plan.
A copy of the document cannot be found on the web but can be emailed.

Pakistan
Pakistan's National Anti-Corruption Strategy (NACS), launched in 2002, is noteworthy both for its analysis and diagnosis of the country's corruption challenges and for the level of detail included in its contents, particularly in terms of reform proposals. While commitment to implement the strategy by the current government is still to be seen and assessed, the strategy itself is a very comprehensive document and was drafted using a combination of local (the National Accountability Bureau) and international expertise.

UK anti-fraud and anti-corruption strategies (at local government level)
Most local government authorities in the UK have put in place anti-fraud and anti-corruption strategies. For examples, please refer to the following links:

Exeter City Council

Surrey County Council

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Part II: Recommended Reading on Anti-Corruption Strategies

Daniel Kaufman, 'Revisiting Anti-Corruption Strategies: Tilt Towards Incentive-Driven Approaches?' in Corruption and Integrity Improvement Initiatives in Developing Countries (New York: UNDP, 1998).

This chapter questions the validity of toolkits for anti-corruption strategies to be applied in any setting. Acknowledging that it is impossible to have a list of long solutions in terms of the specific details of an anti-corruption strategy in a particular country, it suggests some emerging principles for the design of anti-corruption strategies. These deviate from ex post legal and institutional detection and enforcement measures and emphasise the importance of country-specific understanding of the forms and determinants of corruption, with a focus on priorities and fundamentals. The chapter also highlights a common denominator for addressing corruption: better understanding of the role of incentives and their incorporation into anti-corruption strategies.

Alan Doig and Stephen Riley, 'Corruption and Anti-Corruption Strategies: Issues and Case Studies from Developing Countries', in Corruption and Integrity Improvement Initiatives in Developing Countries (New York: UNDP, 1998).

Among other issues, this chapter discusses the applicability of universal approaches to designing and implementing effective anti-corruption strategies, drawing conclusions from case studies of Botswana, Ecuador, Hong Kong, Tanzania, Mali and Senegal. Having identified the need for individually-tailored strategies, the chapter suggests that one core element in any successful anti-corruption strategy is exceptional political and managerial will, which is necessary to promote and maintain anti-corruption reform.

UNODC, 'Anti-Corruption Toolkit' (Vienna: UNODC, 2002)

This is a useful reference tool for use by government, civil society actors and other practitioners in the design and implementation of anti-corruption strategies aimed at strengthening country integrity systems. It covers key components of any comprehensive strategy, such as prevention, enforcement, institution-building, awareness-raising, anti-corruption legislation, monitoring and repatriation of illegal funds. This product draws on lessons learned from both anti-corruption research as well practical tools captured through technical assistance activities.

Daniel Kaufmann et al, 'New Frontiers in Diagnosing and Combating Corruption', in PremNote 7 (Washington DC: World Bank, 1998).

The authors of this PremNote suggest that corruption flourishes where policies provide incentives for its development and restraining institutions are weak. Diagnosing corruption helps a country understand the shortcomings in its policies and institutions and design a tailored anti-corruption strategy. Rejecting the contention that corruption cannot be systematically measured, the report stresses that independent and professional empiricism can be a springboard for effective reform by depoliticising the anticorruption policy debate.

Robert Klitgaard et al, 'Corrupt Cities: A Practical Guide to Cure and Prevention' (Washington DC: Institute for Contemporary Studies, WB, 2000).

In 'Corrupt Cities', the authors discuss novel ways for tackling corruption on the local level. Case studies from New York, Hong Kong, and La Paz, Bolivia, are used to demonstrate how approaching and solving seemingly hopeless problems can become a catalyst for successful reform. 'Corrupt Cities' discusses how to diagnose municipal corruption and involve citizens and government in finding and implementing workable solutions using various strategic approaches.

Philliat Matscheza and Constance Kunaka, 'Anti-Corruption Strategies and Mechanisms in Southern Africa' (Harare: Human Rights Research and Documentation Trust of Southern Africa, 2000).

This study aims to identify existing mechanisms and strategies against corruption in the various countries of Southern Africa, providing a comparative analysis of their effectiveness and impact. The study identifies punishment, prevention and public education as the three main principles at the core of any national anti-corruption strategy. It also examines the institutions and mechanisms most commonly used to combat corruption in the region, the respective legal frameworks governing those institutions and recommendations for their improvement.

Jeremy Pope, 'TI Source Book 2000: Confronting Corruption, The Elements of a National Integrity System' (Berlin: Transparency International, 2000).

TI's Source Book contains numerous sections relevant for the design and implementation of the various elements of a national anti-corruption strategy. It introduces the concept of the National Integrity System and discusses its components in detail. The concept rests on the basis that corruption can only be fought effectively in its systemic context. The National Integrity System thus encompasses all those institutions and practices that collectively determine levels of honesty, transparency and accountability in public and commercial life. Where corruption is widespread, tackling isolated problems is likely to be ineffective. Rather, sustainable anti-corruption efforts depend on a number of actors all performing their part. Enforcement alone is seen as inadequate, uncertain and inefficient. The approach must therefore be holistic, including prevention strategies, which minimise corrupt opportunities and reduce corrupt incentives.

Stephen Riley, 'Post-Independence Anti-Corruption Strategies and Contemporary Effects of Democratisation', in Corruption and Reform ( 7 (3) 249-261, 1993).

This article revisits the argument that corruption is a consequence of African culture, a position that has been used to defend gift-giving, reciprocity of favours or improper patron-client relations. The author rejects these arguments and focuses on political leadership as the primary force behind corruption. Such leadership, he argues, must also be a central aspect of national anti-corruption strategies. The article is a useful starting point for discussion of the political factors underlying corruption in Africa.

Myoung-Ho Shin, 'Developing Effective Anticorruption Strategies in a Changing World', paper presented at 9th IACC (Durban: TI, 1999).

The experiences of Singapore and Hong Kong demonstrate that corruption can be effectively combated if the proper legal and administrative systems are in place. Improved professionalism in the public sector coupled with enhanced accountability, transparency and predictability, can transform systems to the point where incidents of corruption are no longer widespread but isolated and rare.

UNDP, 'Domestic Reform Strategies', in Corruption and Good Governance (New York: UNDP, 1997).

The authors state that government policies and strategies can control the risks of corruption. Domestic anti-corruption policy can both reduce corrupt opportunities as well as increase the probability of detection and punishment. The chapter discusses strategies that reforming countries can consider to reduce the discretion and monopoly power of government officials, improve law enforcement, introduce civil service reform, increase transparency and improve citizen oversight.

World Bank, 'Designing Effective Anti-Corruption Strategies', in Anti-Corruption in Transition. A Contribution to the Policy Debate (Washington DC: World Bank, 2000).

Using a constructed heuristic typology devoted largely to transition and post-communist societies, the World Bank suggests a number of potential anti-corruption strategies that are tailored to particular socio-political conditions. The typology is based on levels of state capture and administrative corruption as well as other determinants associated with the institutional capacity of the state. Corruption still persists in all cases, even in conditions of operational pluralism, regulated competition and public service provision. A combination of political will, partnerships, knowledge transfers, transparency, and de-monopolisation as well as a fertile civil society is thought to be needed to enhance the effectiveness of anti-corruption strategies.

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